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THE 
GARY PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

MEASUREMENT OF 
CLASSROOM PRODUCTS 

By 
STUART A. COURTIS 



GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 

61 Broadway NewYork 

1919 



^id 



MEASUREMENT OF CLASSROOM PRODUCTS 



SURVEY OF THE GARY SCHOOLS 

On invitation of the Board of Education and the 
Superintendent of Schools of Gary, Indiana, a sur- 
vey of the Gary schools was made by the General 
Education Board. It is published in eight parts, 
as follows: 

The Gary Schools : A General Account 

By Abraham Flexner and Frank P. Bachman 

(25 Cents) 

Organization and Administration 
George D. Strayer and Frank P. Bachman 

(is Cents) 

Costs 
Frank P. Bachman and Ralph Bowman 

(25 Cents) 

Industrial Work 
Charles R. Richards . 

(25 Cents) 

Household Arts 

Eva W. White 

(10 Cents) 

Physical Training and Play 

Lee F. Hanmer 

(lO Cents) 

Science Teaching 
Otis W. Caldwell 

(10 Cents) 

Measurement of Classroom Products 

Stuart A. Courtis 

(30 Cents) 

Any report will be sent postpaid on receipt of the 
amount above specified. 



THE GARY PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



MEASUREMENT OF 
CLASSROOM PRODUCTS 



BY 

STUART A. COURTIS 



GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 

61 Broadway New York City 
1919 






COPYRIGHT, 19 1 9, 
BY 

'General Education Board 



0ift 

Publish ^r" 
OCT 22 im 






CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction vii 

Author's Preface xxi 

I. General Statement. ....... 3 

11. Tests and Testing Conditions ... 10 

III. Handwriting ......... 28 

§1. General Results 
§2. Critical Discussion 

IV. Spelling , . 79 

§1. General Results 
§2. Critical Discussion 

V. Arithmetic 146 

§1. General Results 
§2. Critical Discussion 

VI. Composition . . . 209 

§1. General Results 
§2. Critical Discussion 

VII. Reading . 263 

§1. General Results 
§2. Critical Discussion 

VIII. Factors Afpecting Performance . . 355 

IX. Conclusions 383 

X. Appendix A s^^ 

XL Appendix B 483 



INTRODUCTION 

The Gary Plan 

In the last few years both laymen and professional 
educators have engaged m a Hvely controversy as to the 
merits and defects, advantages and disadvantages of 
what has come to be called the Gary idea or the Gary 
plan. The rapidly increasing literature bearing on the 
subject is, however, deficient in details and too often 
partisan in tone. The present study was undertaken 
by the General Education Board at the request of the 
Gary school authorities for the purpose of presenting an 
accurate and comprehensive account of the Gary schools 
in their significant aspects. 

In the several volumes in which the main features of 
the Gary schools are separately considered, the reader 
wUl observe that, after presenting facts, each of the 
authors discusses or — ^in technical phrase — attempts to 
evaluate the Gary plan from the angle of his particular 
interest. Facts were gathered in a patient, painstaking, 
and objective fashion; and those who want facts, and 
facts only, wUl, it is believed, find them in the descriptive 
and statistical portions of the respective studies. But 
the successive volumes will discuss principles, as well as 



viii INTRODUCTION 

state facts. That is, the authors will not only describe 
the Gary schools in the frankest manner, as they found 
them, but they will also endeavor to interpret them in the 
light of the large educational movement of which they 
are part. An educational conception may be sound or 
unsound; any particular effort to embody an educa- 
tional conception may be adequate or inadequate, effec- 
tive or ineffective. The public is interested in knowing 
whether the Gary schools as now conducted are efficient 
or inefficient; the pubHc is also interested in knowing 
whether the plan as such is sound or unsound. The 
present study tries to do justice to both points. 

What is the Gary plan? 

Perhaps, in the first instance, the essential features of 
the Gary plan can be made clear, if, instead of trying to 
tell what the Gary plan is, we tell what it is not. Ex- 
cept for its recent origin and the unusual situation as 
respects its foreign population, Gary resembles many 
other industrial centers that are to be found throughout 
the country. Now, had Gary provided itself with the 
t3^e of school commonly found in other small industrial 
American towns, we should find there half a dozen or 
more square brick "soap-box" buildings, each accom- 
modating a dozen classes pursuing the usual book studies, 
a playground, with little or no equipment, perhaps a 
basement room for manual training, a laboratory, and a 
cooking room for the girls. Had Gary played safe, this 
is the sort of school and school equipment that it would 
now possess. Provided with this conventional school 



INTRODUCTION ix 

system, the town would have led a conventional school 
life — quiet, unoffending, and negatively happy — doing 
as many others do, doing it about as well as they do it 
and satisfied to do just that. 

A^ contrasted with education of this meager type, the 
Gary plan is distinguished by two features, intimately 
connected with each other: 

First — the enrichment and diversification of the 
curriculum; 

Second — the administrative device that, for want of a 
better name, wiU be tentatively termed the duplicate 
school organization. 
These two features must first be considered in general 
terms, if the reader is to understand the detailed descrip- 
tion and discussion. 

As to the curriculum and school activities. While 
the practice of education has in large part continued 
to follow traditional paths, the progressive hterature of 
the subject has abounded in constructive suggestions 
of far-reaching practical significance. Social, political, 
and industrial changes have forced upon the school 
responsibilities formerly laid upon the home. Once the 
school had mainly to teach the elements of knowledge; 
now the school is charged with the physical, mental, and 
social training of the child. To meet these needs a 
changed and enriched curriculum, including community 
activities, facilities for recreation, shop work, and house- 
hold arts, has been urged on the content side of school 
work; the transformation of school aims and discipline 



X INTRODUCTION 

on the basis of modem psychology, ethics, and social 
philosophy has been for similar reasons recommended on 
the side of attitude and method. 

These things have been in the air. Every one of them 
has been tried and is being practised in some form or 
other, somewhere or other. In probably every large 
city in the country efforts have been made, especially in 
the more recent school plants, to develop some of the 
features above mentioned. There has been a distinct, 
unmistakable, and general trend toward making the 
school a place where children "Kve" as well as "learn." 
This movement did not originate at Gary; nor is Gary its 
only evidence. It is none the less true that perhaps no- 
where else have the schools so dehberately and explicitly 
avowed this modern policy. The Gary schools are offi- 
cially described as "work, study, and play" schools — 
schools, that is, that try to respond adequately to a many- 
sided responsibility; how far and with what success, the 
successive reports of the Gary survey will show. 

It must not, however, be supposed that the enriched 
curriculum was applied in its present form at the out- 
set or that it is equally well developed in all the Gary 
schools. Far from it. There has been a distinct and 
uneven process of development at Gary; sometimes, as 
subsequent chapters will show, such rapid and unstable 
development that our account may in certain respects 
be obsolete before it is printed. When the Emerson 
school was opened in 1909, the equipment in laboratories, 
shops, and museums, while doubtless superior to what 



INTRODUCTION xi 

was offered by other towns of the Gary type, could have 
been matched by what was to be found in many of the 
better favored larger towns and cities at the same period. 
The gymnasium, for example, was not more than one 
third its present size; the industrial work was not im- 
precedented in kind or extent; the boys had woodwork, 
the girls cooking and sewing. But progress was rapid: 
painting and printing were added in 191 1; the foundry, 
forge, and machine shop in 1913. The opportunities 
for girls were enlarged by the addition of the cafeteria in 
1913. The auditorium reached its present extended use 
as recently as the school year 1913-14. The Froebel 
school, first occupied in the fall of 191 2, started with 
facilities similar to those previously introduced piecemeal 
into the Emerson. 

These facilities, covering in their development a period 
of years, represent the effort to create an elementary 
school more nearly adequate to the needs of modem 
urban life. The curriculum is enriched by various ac- 
tivities in the fields of industry, science, and recreation. 
Questions as to the efficiency with which these varied 
activities have been administered will be discussed by 
the various contributors to the present study. Mean- 
while, it is perhaps only fair to point out that the modem 
movement calls not only for additions to, but elimina- 
tions from, the curriculum and for a critical attitude 
toward the products of classroom teachuig. How far, on 
the academic side, the Gary schools reflect this aspect 
of the modern movement will also presently appear. 



xii INTRODUCTION 

The administrative device — the "duplicate" organiza- 
tion, noted above as the second characteristic feature of 
the Gary plan — stands on a somewhat different footing, 
as the following considerations make plain. 

Once more, Mr. Wirt was not the inventor of the in- 
tensive use of school buildings, though he was among the 
first — if not the very first — to perceive the purely educa- 
tional advantage to which the situation could be turned. 
The rapidity with which American cities have grown has 
created a difficult problem for school administrators — 
the problem of providing space and instruction for chil- 
dren who increase in number faster than buildings are 
constructed. The problem has been handled in various 
ways. In one place, the regular school day has been 
shortened and two different sets of children attending at 
different hours have been taught daily in one building 
and by one group of teachers. Elsewhere, as in certaia 
high schools, a complete double session has been con- 
ducted. The use of one set of schoolrooms for more than 
one set of children each day did not therefore originate 
at Gary. 

Another point needs to be considered before we discuss 
the so-called dupKcate feature of the Gary plan. In 
American colleges, subjects have commonly been taught 
by specialists, not by class teachers. The work is "de- 
partmentalized" — to use the technical term. There is 
a teacher of Latin, a teacher of mathematics, a teacher 
of physics, who together instruct every class — not a 
separate teacher of each class in all subjects. Latterly, 



INTRODUCTION xiii 

departmentalization has spread from the college into 
the high school, until nowadays well organized high 
schools and the upper grades of elementary schools are 
quite generally "departmentalized," i.e., organized with 
special teachers for the several subjects, rather than 
with one teacher for each grade. 

Out of these two elements, Gary has evolved an admin- 
istrative device, the so-called duplicate school, which, 
from the standpoint of its present educational signifi- 
cance, does indeed represent a definite innovation. 

For the sake of clearness, it will be well to explain the 
theory of the duplicate school by a simplified imaginary 
example : 

Let us suppose that elementary school facilities have 
to be provided for, say, i,6oo children. If each class is 
to contain a maximum of 40 children, a schoolhouse of 
40 rooms would formerly have been built, with perhaps 
a few additional rooms, httle used, for special activities; 
except during the recess (12 to 1:30) each recitation 
room would be in practically continuous use in the old- 
line subjects from 9 to 3 130, when school is adjourned till 
next morning. A school plant of this kind may be 
represented by Figure I, each square representing a 
schoolroom. 

The "duplicate" school proposes a different solution. 
Instead of providing 40 classrooms for 40 classes, it 
requires 20 classrooms, capable of holding 800 children; 
and further, playgrounds, laboratories, shops, gardens, 
gymnasium, and auditorium, also capable of holding 



xiv INTRODUCTION 

8cx3 children. If, now, 800 children use the classrooms 
while 800 are using the other facilities, morning and after- 
noon, the entire plant accommodates 1,600 pupils 
throughout the school day; and the curriculum is greatly 
enriched, since, without taking away anything from their 
classroom work, they are getting other branches also. A 
school thus equipped and organized may be represented 

FIGURE I 
REPRESENTS OLD-FASHIONED SCHOOLHOUSE 



40 rooms for 40 classes, of 40 children each, i. e., facilities for the academic instruc- 
tion of 1,600 children. A school yard and an extra room or two, little used, for special 
activities, are also usually found. 



















































































by Figure II, in which A represents 20 classes taking 
care of 40 children each (800 children) , and B represents 
special faciUties taking care of 800 children. As A 
and B are in simultaneous operation, 1,600 children are 
cared for. 

This method of visualizing the "duplicate" school 
serves to correct a common misconception. The plan 
aims to intensify the use of schoolrooms; yet it would be 



INTRODUCTION 



XV 



incorrect to say that 20 classrooms, instead of 40, 
as under the old plan, accommodate 1,600 children. 
For while the number of classrooms has been reduced 
from 40 to 20, special facilities of equal capacity have 
been added in the form of auditorium, shops, play- 
ground, etc. The 20 classrooms apparently saved 

FIGURE II 
REPRESENTS THE GARY EQUIPMENT 
A B 

20 classrooms for academic instruction Special facilities, taking care of Soochil- 

of 20 classes of 40 children each (800 chil- dren in the morning hours and an equal 
dren) in the morning hours and an equal number in the afternoon hours (1,600 in all 
number in the afternoon (1,600 in all daily) daily) 













Auditorium 












Shops ' 












Laboratories 












Playground, gardens, 
gymnasium and library 



have been replaced by special facilities of one kind or 
another. The so-called duplicate organization and 
the longer school day make it possible to give larger 
facilities to twice as many children as the classrooms alone 
would accommodate. The duplicate school, as devel- 
oped at Gary, is not therefore a device to relieve conges- 
tion or to reduce expense, but the natural result of 
efforts to provide a richer school life for all children. 



xvi INTRODUCTION 

The enriched curriculum and the duplicate organ- 
ization support each other. The social situation re- 
quires a scheme of education fairly adequate to the 
entire scope of the child's activities and possibiHties ; 
this cannot be achieved without a longer school day and 
a more varied school equipment. The duplicate school 
endeavors to give the longer day, the richer curriculum, 
and the more varied activities with the lowest possible 
investment in, and the most intensive use of, the school 
plant. The so-called duplicate school is thus a single 
school with two different types of facihties in more or less 
constant and simultaneous operation, morning and 
afternoon. 

Such is the Gary plan in conception. What about the 
execution? Is it realized at Gary? Does it work? 
What is involved as respects space, investment, etc., 
when ordinary classrooms are replaced by shops, play- 
grounds, and laboratories? Can a given equipment in 
the way of auditorium, shops, etc., handle precisely 
the same number of children accommodated in the class- 
rooms without doing violence to their educational needs 
on the one hand, and without waste through temporary 
disuse of the special facihties, on the other? To what 
extent has Gary modified or reorganized on modern lines 
the treatment of the common classroom subjects? How 
efficient is instruction in the usual academic studies as 
well as in the newer or so-called modem subjects and 
activities? Is the plan economical in the sense that 
equal educational advantages cannot be procured by 



INTRODUCTION xvii 

any other scheme except at greater cost? These and 
other questions as to the execution of the Gary plan are, 
as far as data were obtainable, discussed in the separate 
volumes making up the present survey. 

The concrete questions above mentioned do not, how- 
ever, exhaust the educational values of a given school 
situation. From every school system there come im- 
ponderable products, bad as well as good. Aside from 
aU else, many observers of the Gary schools report one 
such imponderable in the form of a spiritual something 
which can hardly be included in a study of administra- 
tion and eludes the testing of classroom work. These 
observers have no way of knowing whether Gary school 
costs are high or low; whether the pupils spell and add as 
well as children do elsewhere; but, however these things 
may be, they usually describe the pupils as characterized 
by self-possession, resourcefulness, and happiness to an 
unusual degree. While different schools and indeed 
different parts of the same school vary in this respect, 
the members of the survey staff agree that, on the whole, 
there is a basis of fact for these observations. Gary is 
thus something more than a school organization charac- 
terized by the two main features above discussed. 

The reason is not far to seek. Innovation is stimu- 
lating, just as conformity is deadening. Experiment 
is in this sense a thing wholesome in itself. Of course 
it must be held to strict accountabihty for results; and 
this study is the work of persons who, convinced of the 
necessity of educational progress, are at the same time 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

solicitous that the outcome be carefully observed. 
The fact that customary school procedure does not rest 
upon a scientific basis, does not wilHngly submit itself 
to thorough , scrutiny, is no reason for exempting educa- 
tional innovations from strict accountability. The very 
reverse is indeed true; for otherwise innovation may im- 
peril or sacrifice essential educational values, without 
actually knowing whether or not it has achieved definite 
values of its own. Faith in a new program does not 
absolve the reformer from a watchful and critical atti- 
tude toward results. Moreover, if the innovator for- 
mulates his purposes in definite terms and measures his 
results in the light of his professed aims, the conservative 
cannot permanently escape the same process. Gary, like 
all other educational experiments, must be held account- 
able in this fashion. Subject however to such ac- 
countabihty, the breaking of the conventional school 
framework, the introduction of new subject matter or 
equipment, even administrative reorganization, at Gary as 
elsewhere, tend to favor a fresher, more vigorous interest 
and spirit. Defects will in the following pages be pointed 
out in the Gary schools — defects of organization, of ad- 
ministration, of instruction. But there is for the reasons 
just suggested something in the Gary schools over and 
above the Gary plan. Problems abound, as in every 
living and developing situation. But the problems 
are the problems of Ufe, and, as such, are in the long 
run perhaps more hopeful than the relatively smooth 
functioning of a stationary school system. Thus, not- 



INTRODUCTION xix 

withstanding the defects and shortcomings which this 
study will candidly point out, the experiment at Gary 
rightly observed and interpreted is both interesting and 
stimulating. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

The present account of the measurement of certain 
products of classroom teaching at Gary presents in 
detail the results of the various tests given for the pur- 
pose of measuring the degree of efficiency with which the 
common school subjects were taught at the time of the 
investigation of the Gary schools. Because of the care 
with which the testing work at Gary was conducted, 
and the number and variety of the tests given, the data 
secured seem to the author to have thrown much light 
upon some of the problems fundamental to all meas- 
urement work. He believes that the testing move- 
ment has now reached a stage in which a critical 
study of the validity of the results secured may be both in- 
teresting and beneficial. Accordingly, he has ventured 
to discuss at considerable length in Section 2 of each 
chapter the technique of classroom testing and the va- 
rious factors which affect the results. The report ought, 
therefore, to be of interest not only because it deals with 
Gary, but because it attempts a general critical dis- 
cussion of tests and testing. 

A volume of this character is never the product of a 
single mind. The writer would be ungrateful indeed 
did he not acknowledge his indebtedness for the great 



xxii AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

and varied assistance he has received: First and fore- 
most, to the superintendent, teachers, and pupils of the 
Gary schools, without whose fullest cooperation the 
thoroughness, of the testing work could not have been 
attained; to Messrs. Ayres, Thorndike, and Judd, for 
aid in the interpretation of the data secured ; and finally, 
and perhaps most of all, to the enthusiasm, disinterested 
service and fidelity of the six young men who served as 
his assistants, Messrs. Paul C. Packer, E. J. Ashbaugh, 
George C, Brandenburg, Leo J. Brueckner, J. W. 
Richardson, and E. H. Lauer. It is through their ar- 
duous labors, intelligent cooperation, conscientious per- 
formance of assigned tasks, that the original design of 
the survey has been carried out as planned. 

For such errors in planning, execution, and expression, 
as may be found, the writer accepts full responsibihty. 
They indicate merely his limitations and his inability 
to profit fully by the generous and loyal assistance which 
all have been glad to give. 



MEASUREMENT OF CLASSROOM PRODUCTS 



I. GENERAL STATEMENT 

"Status of Educational Measurement 

THROUGHOUT this report the reader will need 
to keep constantly in mind the fact that educa- 
tional measurement is a recent development. 
The first reliable scale for measurement of any educational 
product was published early in 19 lo; measurement was 
first used in a large modern survey in 191 2. Even 
to-day there are probably hundreds of educational 
workers who have never heard of measurement, and 
hundreds more who have not the faintest conception 
of the fundamental principles involved. 

On the other hand, so rapid has been the development 
that a bureau for educational research was established 
in a city school system by September, 19 13. To-day 
there is a National Association of Directors of Educa- 
tional Research with a membership of thirty-odd men 
and women who are giving their time wholly, or mainly, 
to such work. Courses in educational measurement are 
given in most university schools cf education and in 
many normal schools. No survey of a school system 
would to-day be attempted without making provision to 
secure objective evidence through educational measure- 
ment upon which to base conclusions. 

3 



4 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

However, the mushroom growth of the movement for 
measurement, the superficial use of untested tools, the 
hasty generaHzation from insufficient data do not make 
for confidence. There is at the present moment a very 
great danger that educational measurement will be dis- 
credited more by the reckless optimism of its friends 
than by the attacks of its enemies. Yet of the value of 
measurement itself there can be no question; the methods 
of science are not on trial. There is no question, even, 
of the applicabiHty of methods of scientific measurement 
to educational problems. The one thing that is needed 
is time, time to study the measuring instruments them- 
selves before accepting them as perfect, time to formulate 
fully a problem before attempting to solve it, time to 
gather reliable data and to digest them before arriving 
at conclusions. 

LIMITATIONS OF MEASUREMENT 

In the appraisal of educational innovations the ulti- 
mate question must ever be: "What is the effect upon 
the children?" However widely a school system may 
depart from established usage, however much its ex- 
perimental modifications of either theory or practice 
may seem injudicious and undesirable, if it could be 
shown by impersonal, objective measurement that be- 
cause of the changes that had been made, the graduates 
of the school system in question are better developed, 
better trained, and generally more desirable members 
of society, all other judgments would have to be reversed. 



GENERAL STATEMENT 5 

Unfortunately, it is not possible at the present time 
to measure completely and objectively the total educa- 
tional product of a school system. For many years to 
come, expert opinion based upon inspection must be our 
only means of estimating the general worth of such edu- 
cational experiments as that at Gary. But in certain 
phases of school work measurement is possible, and such 
measurement serves as a check upon the observations 
and opinions of the inspecting experts. If, for example, 
inspection is made of the teaching of spelling and such 
teaching is judged to be faulty, while the objective tests 
of spelling ability prove that the children spell very 
much better than children of the same grade or age in 
conventional school systems, then the ability of the 
judges to pass upon the innovations may well be doubted, 
If, on the other hand, the results of the objective tests and 
the subjective opinion of the inspectors are in complete 
agreement, then the judgments of the experts in those 
matters in which no such checks are at present possible 
may be accepted with greater confidence. Educational 
measurement in its present stage of development must 
necessarily deal with but few of the many products of 
educational work. It is more valuable as a check 
upon the more extended (but less reliable) subjective 
judgments of a survey staff than as a complete and in- 
dependent determination of the merits or demerits of a 
school system. Therefore, this report should be read and 
interpreted in connection with that on Organization and 
Administration, and the chapters, in The Gary Schools: 



6 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

A General Account, dealing with the Course of Study 
and Instruction. 

TITLE 

The title chosen for this report calls for explanation. 
Measurement itself is so new, the total of our scientific 
knowledge of tests and testing so meager, that in spite 
of the limitations implied in the use of the word "certain," 
the title "Measurement of Certain Products of Class- 
room Teaching" is still too sweeping in its claims. Any- 
ordinary writing lesson may awaken the dormant self- 
consciousness of a child to a sense of his own power, 
the mastery of a spelHng difficulty may strengthen the 
fibers of his character, the deadhest grind found in the 
most mechanical school may, for certain individuals, 
serve to organize and direct their energies toward worthy 
aims. Stimulation, character building and inspiration 
may be products of classroom teaching of the common 
branches no less than the grosser elements really meas- 
ured by our educational tests. When, therefore, we 
undertake to measure classroom products and measure 
only efficiency in certain mechanical abiHties we may miss 
wholly certain other products of equal or greater value. 
If all the ideas, which a strict regard for the truth would 
require, were to appear in the title, a statement some- 
thing like the following would have to be used: "A 
report of an attempt to measure a few phases of certain 
products of classroom teaching in four of the largest 
pubhc schools at Gary." The shorter title should be so 
read as to connote the longer. 



GENERAL STATEMENT 7 

Yet, after all, it may be that the shorter title does not 
so culpably misrepresent the truth. True stimulation 
awakens a child to his school opportunities no less than 
to those of the outside world. True character building 
is made manifest by the spirit in which daily tasks are 
perforriied, whether these tasks are in the school or in 
the home. True inspiration produces as substantial 
achievement in childhood as in the prime of life. There- 
fore, when measurement of the higher phases of the prod- 
ucts of classroom teaching becomes possible, it may be 
that we shall find the higher and the lower so indissolubly 
linked together that from the measurement of one, the 
degree of development of the other may be inferrec^. 
The present study is, at least, an honest attempt to 
evaluate completely and thoroughly those elements in 
the situation which are now measurable. 

RELIABILITY 

Because the dangers and limitations of measurement 
were fully recognized, the attempt was made at Gary to 
secure results as reliable as it is possible to make them 
at present. Each subject was tested in more than one 
way, and great care was taken to control the conditions 
under which the tests were given and scored. Tests 
of the product of teaching of the elementary schools were 
carried through the high school grades as well, both to 
determine how the abilities developed in the lower 
grades were affected by high school work, and to see 
whether or not any marked changes in product had 



8 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

occurred in recent years. From the point of view of 
thoroughness, therefore, and within their narrow field, 
the results are probably more complete and hence more 
reliable than those of previous surveys. 

PLAN OF REPORT 

No effort, time, or expense has been spared on this 
report. And yet, as the time comes for publication, 
there comes also the realization that what has been 
written may very easily be misunderstood. A survey 
report to be readable must condense and summarize 
its findings, but to be inteUigible must give in full the 
data upon which its conclusions are based. Either 
course alone is sure to lead to misconception. Accord- 
ingly, the writer has written this report in three sections. 
Section i of each chapter is a concise, non-technical discus- 
sion of the significant aspects of the data secured in the 
present attempt to evaluate by measurement the effects 
of the Gary system upon the teaching of the fundamental 
branches in the Gary schools. Section 2 contains critical 
discussions of all that is involved in the testing process — 
analyses that will show clearly the reservations with 
which any set of conclusions should be put forward. 
Finally, in the appendices has been placed material of 
value to the student of education and essential to a care- 
ful study of the report, but devoid of interest except to the 
specialist. This material includes certain of the longer de- 
tailed tables, directions for scoring the tests, samples of rec- 
ord sheets, score cards, and other items of a similar nature. 



GENERAL STATEMENT 



INTERPRETATION 



In interpreting the meaning of results of tests, three 
methods of procedure are possible. One method — and 
the best, for it is the least ambiguous — ^is to state what 
was fotmd, leaving it to the reader to judge for himself 
whether or not the product is satisfactory. The second 
method is to compare the results obtained with those 
from other cities where similar measurements have been 
made. This method is legitimate only when the two 
cities have been measured with equal care and under 
similar conditions. The third method is to record the 
investigator's own conclusions. This method is the 
most dangerous, for it is difficult to free opinion from the 
effects of personal bias. However, in this report all 
three methods have been followed. In succeeding 
chapters the direct and comparative data will be found 
in detail. In the final chapter the author's own con- 
clusions from these data are presented. 



II. TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 

THE theory of the modern program at Gary, aim- 
ing to minister adequately to every need of the 
child — ^physical, intellectual, moral, industrial, 
and social — and to correlate closely school activities with 
those of real Hfe, meets with general approval; but the 
vital question to be answered by the measurements de- 
scribed in this volume is : What effects do the actual ways 
in which the Gary schools carry out their program have 
upon certain educational products? 

THE SCHOOLS TESTED 

The four m.ost representative schools of Gary, named 
in the order of size and equipment, are: Froebel, 
Emerson, Jefferson, and Beveridge. The Froebel and 
Emerson schools, built within the last ten years, are 
both architecturally adapted and fully equipped to carry 
out an extended and enriched program. The Jefferson 
and Beveridge schools, however, were in existence prior 
to the development of the present system. In both, in 
spite of alterations, the attempt to carry out the full im- 
plication of the Gary plan is handicapped by limitations 
of equipment. Nevertheless, both have the longer school 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS ii 

day and the new t3^e of organization, and in both the 
regular academic work is supplemented by such additional 
special work as their facilities permit. Comparisons from 
one Gary school to another are thus possible and should 
serve to bring to light any effects caused by differences 
in equipment or organization. 

The remaining schools are small in size, limited in 
equipment, and at such distances from the center of the 
town that it seemed better to confine the testing to the 
four schools mentioned. Accordingly, but few tests were 
given in the small schools. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

The sections of the city served by the various schools 
differ greatly in social conditions; hence, in making 
school to school comparisons these differences should 
be kept in mind. The Froebel children are mainly 
of foreign parentage and often come from homes far 
down on the social scale. As a result, difficulty with 
language is a factor which enters largely into all work 
at this center. The Emerson and Jefferson schools, 
however, draw from the better residential districts. 
Beveridge is in an older and poorer section of the city, 
and its children differ accordingly. The differences in 
the home conditions from school to school are, therefore, 
marked. 

In regard to the related question as to the composition 
of the population, it is probable that the foreign born 
element in Gary is greater than in most American cities 



12 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

of the same size, but probably not greater than in other 
rapidly growing industrial centers.-^ 

SYSTEM OF GRADING 

The regular school year in Gary is ten months, usu- 
ally divided into three equal terms. There is a corres- 
ponding division of grades into A, B, and C groups. Thus 
the lowest group in the sixth grade is known as 6C, 
the next higher as 6B, and the highest group as 6A. 
However, all three divisions are often found in the same 
class organization, taking the same work.^ But class 
organization is not as stable at Gary as in conventional 
systems.^ Children tend to come and go, and the mem- 
bership of a given class fluctuates correspondingly. In 
conducting a test it has happened that the grade label 
given by the principal to a class did not agree with that 
given by the teacher, and sometimes neither was the 
same as the grades written by the children on the test 
papers. Under the circumstances, it was decided to 
give to each class the official grade assigned to it at the 

^See The Gary Schools: A General Account. 

^It might have happened that this plan of promotion would make 
comparisons with corresponding grades in other cities unfair, in that a 
third of the children would have been in a grade but a short time by the 
end of the year. Careful checking of the data, however, proves that 
owing to the manner of grouping children in classes, this is not the case; 
the special condition is favorable to Gary rather than otherwise. 

^The various recitation groups or classes are numbered, as class i8, 
Jefferson. Two classes of the same grade in the same school have dif- 
ferent numbers. Thus class 45, Froebel, is an eighth grade class, and 
class 46 is also an eighth grade class. 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 13 

close of scliool before promotions in June, 19 16. Class 
No. 45 FS'oebel, for instance, will be called an eighth 
grade class, and throughout the tables that follow its 
scores form a part of the eighth grade group. 

ATTENDANCE 

Class No. 45 was a persistent unit throughout the 
testing period and has been so tabulated, but the individ- 
uals comprising class No. 45 varied more or less with 
every test. The actual number of individuals found 
in this class on the 20 different occasions on which it was 
visited from March 23 to June 9 varied from 11 to 23 
(Figure i). While this particular class illustrates ex- 
treme variation above and below the official class mem- 
bership, similar data were obtained for many other 
classes.^ 

The irregularity in class No. 45 Froebel was due to 
many causes; some of the variations were brought about 
by such legitimate factors as sickness and withdrawal 
from school work; other cases represent legitimate varia- 
tions caused by adjustment of programs to individual 
needs leading to attendance on other than official classes. 
For instance, individual "I" (Figure i) on April 11 
recited for some reason with class No. 46 instead of 
with class No. 45 in which he officially belonged. Simi- 



^The results for the other 4 eighth grade classes (combined) are: 
ofl&cial membership 128, maximum attendance 134, minimum 91, median 
119; names not on official list, 11; children tested twenty times in the 
twenty test days, 34 per cent. See also Table I, Appendix A. 



14 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure i 
Children Actttally Tested in Class No. 45 Froebel 



.ATTENDANCE 


- 


FROEBEL 


- 


CLA55 


45 


- 


EIGHTH GR.ADL 


NAME 


JlATt 


ATTS-IL 


MAV 


JUNt. 


TOTAL 


REMAM5 


23 


30 


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13 


14 25 E6 27 


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iaz9 


at 


i 


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A 
























1 £> 




B 




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ENROLLED IN 4fc H.T 


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TOTAL 


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H^lAW 15 



Individuals are denoted by letters in the column at the left. The 
dates of the various tests are given at the top. Each small rectangle 
represents the attendance of one individual for one day. Black means 
absence. Abbreviations have the following meanings: 

T means tested in the given class. 

N. T. means not tested in the given class. 

46 means class No. 46, also eighth grade class. 

44 means class No. 44, a seventh grade class. 

43 means class No. 43, a seventh grade class. 

Withdrawn means left school. 

Enrolled or not enrolled refers to the "Official lists." 

The ofi&cial enrollment for class No. 45 was 16, the median attendance 
15, the maximum attendance 23, the minimum 11, the number of 
different individuals found in the class during the twenty test days, 26. 
The superintendent states that this class was a small, irregular group 
which served as a temporary "catch all" for the grade. Howe\'er, similar 
variations were found in other classes and grades, also. 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 15 

larly, individual "Z" was regularly tested in class No. 43 
(7th grade), his official class, but twice appeared in class 
No. 45 (Sth grade). Individual "B" appears on the 
official list^ of class No. 46 and individual "S" in class 
No. 44, but neither is found in the records of the tests 
of these classes. Individuals "C," "J," and "L" 
represent still another type of variation; their names 
do not appear on any of the official lists of any classes 
yet their test papers are on file as proof that on the days 
mentioned they were present in class No. 45. In grades 
four to eight, for 51 classes with an average membership- 
of 31, there were found present for the spelling test on 
May 2 and 3, on the average, 1.7 names per class which 
did not appear on the official enrollment.^ That is, 
the tests were given to continually fluctuating groups. 

No complete tabulation of the exact attendance by 
individuals in each test and class was made, because a 



^Principals were asked to furnish complete lists by classes of all the 
children enrolled. Previously, children's names appearing on the 
teachers' registers had been copied on cards, and checked against the 
promotion lists for grades and against the census reports for age. When 
the lists furnished by the principals had been checked against these 
cards, they were adopted as "OflScial Class Lists" and are so referred 
to throughout this report. 

^Percentage of "extra" pupils: Froebel, 7-5%'^ Jeflferson, 6.5%; 
Emerson, 2%; Beveridge, 1%. There is some evidence tending to show 
that the "extra" pupils were present in larger numbers when the testing 
work was new. Whether the absent and extra groups represent real 
conditions or simply defects in the "official lists" cannot be determined. 
The "official lists" represent, at least, the best that could be done with 
such lists as the principals furnished. 



i6 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 



17 



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i8 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

study of attendance, as such does not fall within the 
scope of this report; but plenty of incidental evidence 
that Figure i actually reflects conditions throughout all 
grades of the school during the testing periods has been 
accumulated during the process of checking records. 
For instance, the actual number of children tested on 
the 19 test days varied from 68 per cent, to 90 per cent. 
(average 83 per cent.) (Table I, Figure 2). The writer 
estimates that about 80 children out of 100 enrolled 
were tested regularly,^ that the remaining children varied 
from day to day. As part of either the constant or 
fluctuating group, there were approximately 5 per cent, 
of the children who were either not enrolled at all, or who, 
from causes legitimate or otherwise, recited from day 
to day with classes other than their own. On the aver- 
age, therefore, a single test measures only 83 per cent. 
of the total number of children enrolled. 

COURSES OF STUDY, TIME ALLOTMENTS 

An important series of facts bearing directly upon the 
interpretation of the results of tests are those connected 
with the amount and character of the instruction, with 

^That is, three days out of four. For instance, the four Trabue Lan- 
guage Scales were given at Gary as follows: B, April 13; D, April 14; 
E, May 16; C, May 29. A class selected at random from the Emerson 
school proved to be class No. 12, 6th grade. From the tests, 43 names 
were secured (official membership, 38) ; 49 per cent, of these children 
were present for aU four tests, 26 per cent, for three tests, 11 per cent, for 
two tests, and 14 per cent, for one test only. Approximately 55 per cent. 
of the official membership were present for all four tests. 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 



19 



Figure 2 
Percentage of Attendance at Time of Tests from March to June 

BOH 



60 



40 



20- 




ATTENDANCE 

GRADES 4-8 INCLUSIVE 

B"ASED ONRELATtON BETVEETTCLASS ATTTTMUTSTqCEJVT 
TiriE OF TEST5 AND OFFICIAL ENROLLMENT 



WECK OMITTED 



20 27 


3 


10 


24. 1 


a 


15 ZZ 


29 


5 12 


MARCH 




APRIL 






MAY 




JUNE 



The scale along the base of the figure is the time scale. The scale 
along the vertical axis represents the per cent, the actual attendance is 
of the official enrollment. The solid line represents the results obtained. 
The dotted line is the generalized^ curve of attendance. The general 
percentage of attendance indicated by the dotted line is 85%. 

The reader should note that in the time scale a week during which 
there was no school has been omitted. 



'See XI of Appendix A, page 474. 



20 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

the amount and conditions of study, and with the relation 
of the special work to the academic training. For de- 
tailed information on these points the reader is referred 
to the other survey reports. 

TESTING PROGRAM^ 

The testing period extended from the third week in 
March to the end of the second week in June (Figure 2). 
The subjects covered were reading, writing, arithmetic, 
EngUsh composition, and spelling. Counting each 
separate test and each repetition of the same as one, 
the total number of tests given was 55, and the total 
niunber of papers scored and tabulated 69,282. With 
one or two minor exceptions, only well estabHshed stand- 
ard tests were used (Figure 3) and these only in the 
fundamental subjects taught in the elementary grades. 

TESTING CONDITIONS 

The effort was made to complete in one day the giving 
of each test to the entire city. Owing to the department- 
alization of school work, however, and the lack of facili- 
ties for testing large groups at one time, it was necessary 
to reach classes in particular rooms where conditions 
were suitable, so that in some cases a few of the classes 
had to be tested on the day following the general test. 
The children were not all tested at the same hour of the 



^See Table II, page 393, of Appendix A for a complete statement 
of the days upon which tests were given. 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 21 

day, but experimental investigations^ seem to show that 

the time of day is not a factor in determining results. 

The fatigue arising from routine work disappears before 

Figure 3 
Tests Given at Gary 



Readinq 


Writing 


A-RTTTTM-R-.TTr 


Oral 


Cleveland 


Series B 


Gray- 


Free-choice 


Four Operations 


Silent 


Dictation 




Kansas 




Cleveland 


Courtis 


Composition 


Multiplication 


Trabue 




Fractions 


English Composition 


Spelling 




Original Story 


Cleveland List Tests 



Dictation Tests 
Reproduction of Story Composition Test 

Total 55 Tests — 69,282 Papers. 

the stimulus of a change of work and the new situation. 
At any rate the Gary results should not be affected by 
this factor more than the results from tests in other 
school systems. In general, the tests were given on 
Tuesdays and Thursdays, although a few exceptions 
occurred. Any one class within the grades tested was 
visited from 19 to 23 times.^ 

The conditions as to light, heat, materials, etc., under 
which the tests are given constitute an important group 
of factors. These are only partially under control and 
differ greatly from day to day. However, they differ 
no more for the testing work than for the regular school 
work. The tests were given in regular classrooms, the 
children used their usual pens and ink, or pencils, and 

^See: Heck,W. H.,Journalof Educational Psycliology,.Vol.V, page 92. 

^See discussion of Table II, Appendix A, page 394. 



22 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

sat at their usual desks. No unusual conditions were 
noted. One or two classes, mainly in the lowest grades, 
were tested in rooms with unfavorable desk conditions, 
but, when necessary and possible, adjustment of rooms 
was made to provide the children with suitable desks 
and suitable tools with which to work. However, in 
general, particular care was taken to test the children 
during periods when they were already engaged in aca- 
demic work, that there might be as little disturbance as 
possible in changing from one type of work to another. 
That is, the children were not called in from the play- 
ground or from their shop work to be tested. The re- 
sults secured cannot Justly be attributed to unusual 
conditions of this character. 

The manner in which tests are given is a factor deter- 
mining the degree of response made by the children, and 
an exceedingly difficult factor to control. A child tested 
for the first time by a stranger may be thrown into a 
nervous panic which absolutely inhibits intelligent re-' 
sponse to the test situation, although ordinarily the 
niunber of such cases does not exceed lo per cent, of the 
group at most. Again, the exigencies of the testing work 
require adjustment of instructions and explanations to the 
varying conditions which arise in classes of different grades 
and at different hours of the day. In general, the tests 
were given by the author and his three assistants,^ 

^Messrs. Packer, Ashbaugh, and Brandenburg. Mr. Brueckner, Mr. 
Lauer, and Mr. Richardson assisted in the scoring and tabulations, and 
all had a part in the preparation of the report. 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 23 

all of whom are men professionally interested in meas- 
urement and experienced in giving tests to school chil- 
dren. For some of the tests, however, it was neces- 
sary to use many more than four examiners. Through 
the kindness of Professor Judd, graduate students were 
secured as needed from the classes in the University of 
Chicago. These were given the necessary specific 
training the day before they were used as examiners. 
Every effort was made through frequent conferences and 
direct training to keep conditions uniform. 

Particular care was given to the timing. Whenever 
possible the examiners used automatic timers, consisting 
of a clock with electrical connections so arranged that 
it could be set to give automatically the starting and 
stopping signals. For long or very short intervals, stop- 
watches and foot-ball timers were used. In many cases 
the teacher was given a timer also and asked to check 
the examiner's timing. The variations noted were small 
and often due to the difference in the reaction times of 
teachers and examiners. For the most part, the timing 
was satisfactorily done and the errors kept within 2 per 
cent, of the total time interval. Only one gross error in 
timing was discovered and the results for that test and 
class were rejected. Variation in timing as an explana- 
tion of scores was thus reduced to a negligible factor. 

Previous to the survey, very little measurement work 
had been done in the Gary schools. To accustom the 
children to the taking of tests and to the examiners, as 
well as to give the members of the staff an opportunity 



24 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

to become acquainted with the buildings and the intri- 
cacies of the program and organization, the first three 
days were devoted to very simple psychological tests 
which could have no disturbing meanings to the chil- 
dren. The first day a test on copying figures was 
given and scored. The children were allowed to examine 
fully the test itself and the tuning device. They scored 
each other's papers. The second day three trials of the 
same test were given, one after the other. The third 
day's work began with a test in canceling triangles, next 
the fifth trial of the test in copying figures was given, 
then a second trial of the test in canceling triangles. 
By this time the children understood the nature of the 
work, were fully adjusted to such details as starting 
together, turm'ng over papers rapidly, and stopping 
promptly on signal. It may be said that the Gary re- 
sults are too high because of this special preparation, 
but no part of low scores can justly be attributed to 
undue nervousness at being timed, or to undue fear of 
the tests themselves. 

One factor, the effect of which it is difficult to ev;alu- 
ate, is the disturbance caused by the survey itself. 
Teachers were subject to inspection, tests, question- 
naires, etc., for a period of several months, and such ex- 
periences are not conducive to whole-hearted teaching 
effort. As far as the testing work itself is concerned, 
the disturbance and loss of time were smalP and probably 

Wlowing an average disturbance of 25 minutes per test day for 24 
days, the total time taken for tests amounts to 10 hours. During the 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 25 

more than offset by the stimulating effects of repeated 
measurement upon both teachers and children. 

The children seemed to enjoy the tests and frequently 
expressed the confident opinion that they had done well. 
The teachers and principals were interested also, and 
from tlie superintendent down to the children themselves 
there was full cooperation. There is every reason to 
believe, therefore, that the results secured represent fairly 
the work of the children, and, subject to the general quali- 
fications to be made in Chapter VIII, constitute a fair 
measure of the children's abilities at the time the survey 
was made. 

SCORING 

Whenever possible, the tests were scored by the 
children in duplicate (that is, by two individuals) and 
later the scoring was checked by the examiners. It 
should be particularly noted, however, that in every 
case the original work was unmarked by the children, 
the scoring being done upon specially prepared answer 
cards. Most of the original material is still on file, un- 
marked, just as it came from the children. This made 
repeated scoring possible so that errors caused by faulty 
work have been almost completely eliminated.^ Wher- 

same period, 165 hours (55 days, 3 hours a day) were allotted to regular 
work in the subjects tested. That is, the testing work at most decreased 
the regular classroom instruction by 6 per cent, during the actual time 
the tests were being given (11 weeks), and by less than 2 per cent, if 
the entire year is taken as a base. 

iln spite of every precaution, a few minor errors are discovered at each 
rereading of data or proof. 



26 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

ever the scoring involved more judgment than merely 
checking answers right or wrong, it was done entirely by 
members of the staff, and then often only after suitable 
training on standardized material. Special care was 
taken in scoring all eighth grade papers. The data given 
in the tables which follow may, therefore, be depended 
upon to represent correctly the actual results secured. 

TABULATIONS 

Tabulation was carried on by paid, specially trained 
assistants. For the most part, these were students of 
the Detroit Normal School, members of the author's 
own classes in educational measurement. Every care 
was exercised to check each result. In the general tables, 
however, fractions and small irregularities have been 
ignored. The results are correct only to the nearest 
tenth of an example, or to the nearest whole per cent. 
For the general discussions, curves have been smoothed, 
approximations used, and conclusions drawn from general 
tendencies rather than from minor irregularities. How- 
ever, in the technical discussions, precise and detailed 
information is also given. 

CONCLUSION 

From the foregoing paragraphs it should be evident 
that the work of the most representative Gary schools 
was measured with due regard to proper control of es- 
sential conditions, and that equal care has been taken 



TESTS AND TESTING CONDITIONS 27 

in scoring and tabulating the results.^ In the succeeding 
chapters, in which the data are presented, little further 
reference to these phases of the testing will be made. 

^For a full discussion of this topic see Part II of the Seventeenth Year- 
book of tjie National Society for the Study of Education (1918), par- 
ticularly Chap. II. 



III. HANDWRITING 

§1. General Results 

HANDWRITING has long held a prominent place 
in American schools. At Gary the annual time 
allotment is 329 hours, or 7 per cent, of the total 
time given to the fundamental subjects. For fifty Ameri- 
can cities the corresponding average allotment is 388 
hours, which is also 7 per cent, of the total.^ Gary, 
therefore, is typically American in the emphasis put 
upon this school art. 

SECURING AND SCORING SAMPLES 

Samples of children's handwriting in grades 2 to 12 
were secured in three different ways. The tests used 
were the Cleveland Free Choice Test, the Courtis Dicta- 
tion Tests, and the Composition Test.^ These were all 
given by the special examiners. The teachers took no 
part in the testing, although they were present in the 
rooms at the time the tests were given. 

The various samples were measured as to the two most 
fundamental characteristics of handwriting : rate, or num- 
ber of letters written per minute; and quality (general 
merit) as determined by comparison with the Ayres Hand- 
writing Scale. However, to free the results from any pos- 

^See The Gary Schools : A General Account. 
^For the meaning of these terms, see pages 48 to 53 of this book. 

28 



HANDWRITING 29 

sible question as to the reliability of such scoring they will 
be presented first by means of representative samples. 
Sample "A" (Figure 4, facing page 30) represents the 
characteristic end product of the training in the elemen- 
tary grades. It is the writing of an eighth grade child in 
the free choice test, was written at the rate of 122 letters 
per minute, and is judged to be equal to quaHty 45 on the 
Ayres Scale. It represents approximately the median 
score^ made by the entire eighth grade group (generalized 
eighth grade city wide score: free choice test, 44 Ayres; 
composition, 42 Ayres; dictation, 39 Ayres)^; that is, 
about half the eighth grade children at Gary wrote as 
well as, or better than, this sample, half wrote as poorly 
as, or worse than, this sample. The reader thus has the 
opportunity of judging for himself whether or not this 
performance under the test conditions represents a satis- 
factory result of eight years' training in writing. 

^The median is the mid-score, a score such that there are as many 
scores the same or larger as there are the same or smaller. More pre- 
cisely, it is "that point on the scale of the frequency distribution on each 
side of which one-half of the measures fall." (Rugg.) 

An approximate method has been used in computing the medians in 
this report. This method yields correct results when the total number 
of scores is even; but when the total number of scores is odd, the result 
is in error (too large) by -2^ th of a step, when "n" represents the fre- 
quency in which the median falls. 

Throughout the report the non-technical reader may read "average" 
for "median" without serious error and with no change in the general 
thought expressed. 

^For actual median quality, see Table XV, page 76. The best score 
made by any eighth grade class in any writing test was 48 Ayres, 
the lowest, 35 Ayres. 



30 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Two other examples, also from the free choice test, 
will serve to define further the quality of writing (Figure 
5, page 31). Sample "B" represents writing of the 
quality (55 Ayres) that is equaled or exceeded by but 
12 per cent, of the eighth grade children, while sample 
"C" represents the quality of writing (30 Ayres) which 
is equaled or exceeded by 94 per cent, of the eighth grade 
children. In other words, most (82 per cent.) of the 
eighth grade writing falls between qualities "B" and 
"C." If the values were to be based on any one test, 
the quality of the samples would need to be changed 
somewhat, but in no case would the change amount to 
more than half a step on the A3n"es Scale. 

The same samples may be used to extend the illustra- 
tion to other grades. For instance, in the composition 
test^ the writing of but one twelfth grade student in four 
equals or exceeds the quality of sample "B," while the 
writing of but one twelfth grade student in twenty is as 
poor as, or worse than, sample "C." That is, approxi- 
mately 75 per cent, of the twelfth grade writing falls 
between samples "B" and "C." In similar fashion, 
approximately 45 per cent, of the fourth grade 
writing falls between samples "A" and "C." Half 
of the fourth grade writing is worse in quality than sam- 
ple "C." 

The generalized city wide median scores^ for both 



^See page 76. 

^For explanation of the sense in which these terms are used see XI 
of Appendix A, page 472. 




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32 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 6 
Rate and Quality Scores in the Three Handwriting Tests^ 
QUALITY AYRES HAND Wf?ITING 

60- 



50 

40 

301 

20 

10 

Oi 




.^"COMPOSITION ^^p,^£f 

g _j^'i--^'^'cHOICE 
7 -- ^ / ,;' DICTATION 



RATE 



I 20 40 40 JO 60 70 80 90 lOO (10 120 liO, 
LETTERS PER MIKUTE 

The scale along the base of the figure represents rate of writing, or 
letters written per minute. The scale along the vertical axis represents 
quality on the Ayres Scale. The heavy solid line represents median 
scores in the composition test; the heavy broken line, the scores in the 
free choice test; the dotted line represents scores in the dictation test. 
The positions of the various grade medians are indicated by figures along 
the curves. 

The graph shows that the free choice and dictation tests agree closely 
in both rate and quality; that the composition test was written at a much 
lower rate and with somewhat higher quality than the other tests. 

rate and quality of writing in all three tests (Table II, 
page ^;^, Figure 6, above) show that the quality of 
writing at Gary varies from 32 Ayres in the fourth grade 
to a maximum quality of 5 1 Ayres in the twelfth grade. 
The progress in rate of writing is marked in the free- 

. *See Table 11, page 33. 



i 



Figure 4 
Sample of Eighth Grade Writing of Median Quality 

Sample A 











The sample above is reproduced as representative of the eighth grade product spelling test, the writing of this individual received a score of 55 Ayres, in the com- 

of handwriting instruction at Gary. It was chosen from the papers obtained in position test, 30 Ayres. Of the entire group of 130 eighth grade papers in this test, 

the free choice test, was written at the rate of 122 letters per minute, and is judged to there were 19 others which received the same mark (4s Ayres) and 29 which were 

be quality 45 Ayres, ± 4. (The actual scores assigned this paper by five independ- marked 40 Ayres. Forty per cent, of the papers were marked 35 Ayres or lower, 21 

ent judges were 40, 45, 45, 50, 55.) The class from which this paper was taken was per cent. 50 Ayres or higher. Plowever, basing conclusions on all the writing tests in 

given the free choice test twice by mistake and of the two papers for this individual, aE grades, it is probable that the sample above represents very closely the median 

both of which received a score of 45 Ayres, the better is reproduced above. In the eighth grade product of the handwriting instruction at Gary. 



HANDWRITING 



33 












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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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36 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

choice test, but the improvement in quality from 
grade to grade is small in all tests. 

The results of the three tests are consistent and show 
only such differences as are to be expected. In the 
elementary grades the quaHties agree very closely. The 
quaUty in the eighth grade dictation test is lower than 
in the other tests, but this is undoubtedly due to 
the fact that attention was being given to spell- 
ing what were, for the Gary children, difficult words 
(average accuracy of spelling 55 per cent.). The 
free choice results in most grades are a Httle better 
in quahty, probably because under the conditions 
of the test the children had had a day's prepara- 
tion in writing the test sentences. In grades ten, 
eleven, and twelve the quality of writing in the com- 
position test is slightly higher than in the other tests, 
but the rate is very much lower; also the students in 
the last year of the high school are a very select group, 
owing to the eliminations in the previous grades. How- 
ever, the maximum differences are not large and the 
best quality reached in any test by any grade is not high. 

DESIRABLE GOALS IN HANDWRITING 

The conclusion that the writing of the Gary children 
is poor may seem unwarranted to certain persons. They 
may take the position that the Gary children write well 
enough; that the quality of writing shown in sample 
^'A" is satisfactory; that the conventional school over- 
emphasizes the subject. Table III taken from the Four- 



Figure 7 
Freeman's Standaed for Eighth Grade Product (70 Ayres) 



70 






a^Lc -S^^o^ ^ri/v^ ^^t'l^ct^^'^i'^ crp ^u^ 



AXhx^^'-y^i^Q.jSAU- -c^-^^ii^i-e^a^^tyCZ^n'^y^iJ^ 








37 



38 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

teenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study 
of Education is a reply to this criticism. It represents 
the judgments of a number of business houses in regard 
to the' quality of writing that is essential. The standard 
quality for the eighth grade product as set by Freeman 
as a result of the investigation is quality 70 on the Ayres 
Scale (Figure 7). 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

In Gary results as a whole are rather higher in rate 
and much lower in quality than the results reported 
by other surveys (Table IV, Figures 8 and 9). For 
instance, the Gary eighth grade score for quality, 43 
Ayres, is 12 points lower than Cleveland (55), 14 points 
lower than Starch's Standard (57), 20 points lower than 
Freeman's results (6^), and 29 points lower than St. 
Louis (72). The differences in the third grade are often 

^In survey work the temptation is great to compare results from city 
to city as if they were secured under identical conditions, but the meth- 
ods of measurement are so new, and the factors to be controlled so 
many, that in spite of the recognized abiUty of the men engaged in 
survey work, variations in conditions are bound to occur. As shown in 
a later chapter, the effect of lack of knowledge of conditions is so serious 
that those making comparisons should be conscious of the danger of 
erroneous inferences. Nevertheless, whenever possible, in this report the 
Gary results are submitted with tables of similar results from other 
cities, and every effort has been made to array the data in such form 
that persons wishing to make comparisons may do so with the least 
danger of misrepresentation. 

Those who make comparisons should always remember that while 
tests reveal differences in achievement, they do not in any way reveal 
the causes of the differences. 



HANDWRITING 



39 



FiGTIRE 8 

Comparative Gary Scores in the Free Choice Test 
HANDWRITING 



QUALITY AY«» 
60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 



AVERAGE S6 AHERICAN CITICSi 




GAW 



RATE 



40i SO 60 70 80 
UTTER3 PER niNUTE 



too 110, <2Q I30 



The scale along the base of the figure shows rate or number of letters 
written per minute. The scale along the vertical axis represents quality 
on the Ayres Scale. The heavy solid line represents Gary scores in the 
free choice test. The light line represents average scores of fifty-six 
American cities. For both curves the positions of the grade medians 
are indicated by figures. 

The graph, as a whole, shows that the Gary scores are much higher in 
rate and much lower in quality than the average of fifty-six American 
cities (Freeman). 

small (Gary 30.8, St. Louis 31.3), but the rate of progress 
at Gary is apparently much less than in other cities. 
This is offset in part by the higher rate of writing at 
Gary. The data tend to show, therefore, that the Gary 
children wrote freely, paying Uttle attention to the 



40 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 9 
Gary Scores Compared with Gr^nd "Rapids Scores 

/« !• 

OUALITT.AYRES / COHPOSITION . FREE CHOICE -GRAND RaPioS 

7 GRAND RAPIDS h 

/ 

■j^'^v'- COMPOSITION GARY p,^jg 

"// — -^ * CHOICE. 

fl/^4 ^ f "T '° GARY 



60 



50 
40 
30 
20 
•01 




HANDWRITING 

COMPARISON - GARY - GRAND BAPlDS 



RATE 



" i> 10 40 so 40 so 60 70 ao 90 100 110 . UO _ IJOJ 

l£TTER5_P£R niNUTe 

The scale along the base of the figure represents rate, or number of 
letters written per minute. The scale along the vertical axis represents 
quality on the Ayres Scale. The heavy solid line shows Gary results in 
the composition test; the heavy broken line indicates free choice test. 
The light solid line represents the Grand Rapids results in the composi- 
tion test, light broken line in the free choice test. On all the curves 
positions of the various grade medians are indicated by figures. 

Curves show that the fifth grade in the free choice test at Grand 
Rapids wrote at about the rate and with about the quality of the twelfth 
grade in the composition test at Gary. For both Gary and Grand 
Rapids there are only slight differences in quality in the free choice 
and composition tests. The Grand Rapids rate in the composition 
test is probably not comparable with the Gary rate, as at Grand Rapids 
the writing of the compositions was timed only in the most general way, 
while at Gary the time each composition was finished was noted. How- 
ever, it is probable that the only effect of this difference would be to shift 
the position of the curve with reference to the rate axis, not to change 
its character. For a statement in regard to the conditions under which 
the Grand Rapids tests were made see Table IV. 



HANDWRITING 



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42 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

quality of their work. However, the rate of writing at 
Gary corresponds closely to the results that have been 
obtained in other cities where children were writing 
freely and did not know that quality of handwriting was 
to be considered.^ 

For the free choice test the papers were sorted by 
grades for quality and the average rate found for each 
quality, as was done in Cleveland. For instance, in the 
fifth grade at Gary, 128 papers of quality 20 averaged 
in rate 58 letters per minute, while 14 papers of quahty 
50 averaged 62 letters per minute, an increase of 4 letters 
per minute. But at Cleveland the papers of quahty 
20 averaged 73 letters per minute, while the papers of 
quahty 50 averaged 57 letters per minute, a decrease 
of 16 letters per minute (Table V, page 43, Figure 10, 
page 44). In other words, in Cleveland the poor writers 
wrote rapidly and the good writers slowly, but at Gary, 
except for the very, very poor writers who wrote very 
slowly, the good and poor writers wrote at about the 
same rate. The difference is probably due to the differ- 
ence in the effect of the training in the two cities.^ 

SCHOOL TO SCHOOL COMPARISONS 

In the dictation test, Froebel has 7 classes markedly 
above the city average and 4 markedly below. For 
the composition and free choice tests the figures are i 



^Fourteenth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, 
Part I, pages 56 and 70. 

*See also pages 252-253, Survey of St. Louis Public Schools. The St. 
Louis curves resemble Gary's, not Cleveland's, but at a lower rate level. 



HANDWRITING 43 

above, 6 below, and 2 above, 7 below respectively. For 
the Emerson school the figures are 2 above, 5 below; 
2 above, i below; 2 above, 2 below (Table VI, page 45). 
The other schools show similar variations. The conclusion 
to be drawn is that there is almost no trace of constant 
differences from school to school. The differences in the 
organization and administration of the four schools and 

TABLE V 
Rate — Quality Development m Gary and in Cleveland 







AVERAGE RATE 


FOR VARIOUS QUALITIES 












QUALITIES 


CASES 


FiFTS Grade 


No. OF 

Cases 


Eighth Grade 
















GARY 


CLEVELAND 




GARY 


CLEVELAND 


101 


9 


62 










20 


128 


58 


73 


10 


78 


97 


30 


128 


64 


66 


39 


94 


88 


40 


61 


66 


63 


53 


93 


85 


50 


14 


62* 


57 


23 


92 


81 


60 


6 


63 


57 


7 


93, 


78 


70 


1 


45 


57 






78 


80 






54 






75 


90 






51 






71 



iln this report, the range of scores in each interval of a distribution is from the 
value given in the table up to but not including the next higher value. For instance, 
10 in this table indicates a range of scores from quality lo.o to and including quality i9.0g+, 
but not quality 20.0. 

•Average 65 if one extremely low score is ignored. 

The table is to be read as follows: Of nine individual records 
at Gary, whose quality of writing ranged from 10 to 19 on Ajrres' Scale, 
the average rate of writing was 62 letters per minute. Of 128 cases 
in Gary of quality 20 to 29 the average rate of writing was 58 letters 
per minute, while at Cleveland the rate for samples of the same quality 
was 73 letters per minute. The number of cases in Cleveland is not 
known. Other results in the table are to be read in similar fashion. 



44 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure io 
Rates of Writing in Gary and in Cleveland* 

RELATION BfTWEtN RATE AND QUALITY 

GARY 

a"GRADC 




JO 60 

QUALITY 

The horizontal axis represents quality. The vertical axis represents 
rate. Position of circles represent both rate and quality. The number 
of letters written per minute for each quality is given in the circles. Solid 
line represents eighth grade, dotted line represents fifth grade. Lines 
marked "G" represent Gary scores, and those marked "C" represent 
Cleveland scores. 

Inferences: In Cleveland there is an inverse relation between rate 
and quality. The writing of the children who had the highest rate was 
the poorest, while those who wrote most slowly had the highest quaHty. 
At Gary, except for very low qualities, the rate of writing was the same 
for all qualities. The children who wrote most slowly at Gary had also 
the poorest writing. 



in the social conditions of their pupils are not reflected 
in any positive fashion in the results of the writing tests. 



*See Table V, page 43. 



HANDWRITING 



45 



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46 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

CONCLUSION 

The results reported above indicate consistently that 
handwriting instruction at Gary is producing very small 
effect upon the product. The improvement in quahty 
is small and does not keep pace with the change in the 
rate of writing. 

§2. Critical Discussion 
characteristics of handwriting 

Development of skill in handwriting is essentially 
the development of a motor habit. However, good 
writing is dependent not alone on the perfection of 
motor habits, but on the harmony between the visual, 
movement, pressure, and thought "controls" which 
keep the writing process going and direct it. 

In spite of the complexity of writing ability, perform- 
ance in a writing test furnishes a simple record which 
is definitely objective and easily measurable. This 
measurement may follow either of two hues, measure- 
ment of gross characteristics only, or measurement of 
analytical details. The gross characteristics are rate 
(number of letters written per unit of time) and quahty 
(or goodness, general merit, etc.). For survey purposes 
measurement of gross characteristics alone is of impor- 
tance, and only such was made in this case. 

As the function of writing is to record thought in 
such a form that it can be easily understood by others, 
legibility is sometimes given as a quality to be measured. 



HANDWRITING 47 

Legibility, however, is itself complex, being dependent 
upon the relative excellence of form, alignment, and other 
characteristics. In comparing two samples it is quite 
impossible to decide on the basis of subjective judgment 
alone whether or not one sample is more legible than the 
other. ' A real measure of legibility requires accurate 
measurement of the time taken to read a sample under 
carefully controlled conditions. On the other hand, any 
and every sample produces on a reader an impression of 
goodness or badness into which the many particular im- 
pressions blend. Accordingly, the expression "quality" 
or "general merit" will be used in place of legibiKty. 
That is, it is believed that whether measurement is 
made by the Thorndike or by the Ayres Scale, comparison 
proceeds on the basis of the impression produced by the 
samples as wholes, and not upon basis of legibility 
alone. 

TESTING CONDITIONS 

Two direct problems are involved in measurement of 
handwriting: (i) control of the conditions under which 
the samples are secured, and (2) measurement of the 
rate and quality of the resultant writing. 

Writing, as a motor habit, is under voluntary control. 
That is, an individual may, within Kmits, vary the rate 
and quality of his writing at will. In general, the more 
a person has to hurry, the less care he will be able to give 
to the formation of his letters, and vice versa. Hence, 
the performance of an individual will vary as the con- 



48 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

ditions under which he writes vary. It becomes im- 
portant, therefore, to choose such conditions that the 
samples secured may be of such a character that in- 
ferences as to the abilities of the children will be reliable. 
The physical factors influencing writing may be dis- 
missed at once. At Gary all tests were conducted in 
regular classrooms, and the writing was with pen and ink 
(pencil was used in the lowest grades and in a few other 
cases where ink was not available) on paper of good 
quality, so that temperature, humidity, ventilation, 
materials, etc., were those which usually prevail in school 
work. The main factors to be controlled were, therefore, 
two — ^incentive and subject matter. 

METHODS OF SECURING SAMPLES 

Teachers of writing often base their Judgments as to 
children's abiHty upon samples secured by asking 
the children for their best writing. This emphasis 
on quality, as everyone well knows from his own ex- 
perience, leads to a highly specialized performance 
quite unlike the usual writing of the individual. The 
purpose of this survey, however, was conceived as an 
effort to determine real abiHty,^ not maximum perform- 

^The reader should remember that the real ability of an Individual 
is his median performance or effective ability. That test is to be judged 
the most perfect test of handwriting which reveals not the best writing 
of which the individual is capable, nor the worst which he will do, but 
the quality nearest like that shown by his penmanship under everyday 
conditions in which the writing activity is functioning norrQall3^ The 
author considers it of utmost importance for a correct understanding of 



HANDWRITING 49 

ance. Therefore, quality was not emphasized in se- 
curing samples. 

A method in more general use is that of giving the 
children material to copy or write, and wording the in- 
structions in such a way that the children understand 
they are^free to determine for themselves the rate and 
quality of their writing. A test of this character is 
known as a free choice test. The instructions recom- 
mended by Starch are "write as well as you can and as 
rapidly as you can." In the Cleveland Survey, the 
teachers were told that papers would be marked for both 
speed and quality. The free choice test has been widely 
used. The instructions at Gary were made to conform to 
the Cleveland model.^ 

The objection to the free choice test is that the element 
of choice prevents a real measure of the efficiency of the 
teaching. For if, as Freeman has shown,^ certain levels 
of quaHty and certain rates of work are required for 



the results secured from the tests of handwriting in this survey that the 
distinction between performance and abUity be clear. The point of 
this footnote is that the ability of an individual in handwriting is not 
to be inferred from a carefuUy prepared letter of application for a posi- 
tion in which the quality of writing is known to be a factor determining 
employment, nor from hastily scribbled notes written whUe riding on a 
train, but from the kind of writing most often appearing in the daily 
work. Test conditions should be such that the samples secured show 
writing of this type. See also Chap. VIII. 

^See Judd, C. H., Measuring the Work of Public Schools, Cleveland 
Survey. 

*See Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education, page 72. 



50 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

business life, the efficiency of school training should be 
judged by the percentage of the total product which 
measures up to the standard. In a free choice test a 
child capable of writing at the required rate and quality 
may choose to write at a much higher rate and with 
consequent sacrifice of quality, or may emphasize quahty 
at the e:5q)ense of rate. In other words, for measurement 
of efficiency the children should write at the standard 
rate (since rate of writing may be controlled through the 
rate at which material is dictated), and the resultant 
writing measured for quahty. If, however, the material 
used is of unusual spelling difficulty, or is not easily 
comprehended, such difficulties may invahdate the test 
as a measure of writing abihty. The material dictated 
at Gary served also as a test of abihty to speU certain 
words. The value of the test as a writing test will be 
discussed later. 

A fourth method of securing samples which represent 
children's ordinary^ writing, and probably the best, is 
to use material written for another purpose. At Gary, 
the papers written in the composition test, where quahty 
of writing was not emphasized were used also as samples 
of the children's writing. As a check upon these results, 

^It should be recognized, of course, that "ordinary" is here used to 
mean the kind of writing which the children have been in the custom 
of using for their written work in the composition class. It may or may 
not resemble the "ordinary" writing of the child out of school. In a 
class where the teacher of English composition has emphasized quality of 
writing the children might pay more attention to quality than in a 
class where the English teacher did not consider writing at all. 



HANDWRITING 51 

in certain classes reproductions of the simple story used 
as a test of comprehension in reading were also scored for 
handwriting. 

The second factor which affects the quahty of the writ- 
ing is the material written. Obviously, if much attention 
must" be given to the understanding or spelHng of un- 
familiar words, Httle can be given to the writing. Most 
free choice tests use as material a famiHar stanza, as 
"Mary had a Httle lamb," which is written again and 
again. In Cleveland the material for all grades was 
the first three sentences of Lincoln's Gettysburg speech. 
The instructions to the teachers provided, however, that 
as a preliminary preparation the pupils should "read and 
copy this (material) until they were thoroughly familiar 
with it and practically knew it by heart." The same 
material was used in the Gary test and the same 
plan of preliminary preparation by the teacher^ was 
followed. In Cleveland, the tests were given by the 
teacher, and in Gary, by specially trained examiners. 
No attempt was made in either Gary or Cleveland to find 
out how completely the teachers had availed themselves 
of the opportunity to practice on the test material. 

In the dictation exercises the words used to test spell- 
ing were taken from Ayres' thousand commonest words 
in written English. As far as possible, no test word was 



^See page 487. 

^One day's preparation was provided for at Gary; at Cleveland the 
amount is not specified, but may have been as much as a week. See : 
Measuring the Work of the Public Schools, page 235. 



52 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

used which was not of less spelhng difficulty than the 
other words in the sentences. It was expected that 
the dictation sentences would be easy material, well 
within the powers of the children, but owing to the 
limited abilities of the Gary children in spelling, it is 
probable that the material was too difficult to afford a 
true measure of the children's writing ability. Therefore, 
the results from the dictation tests should have the least 
weight in making decisions as to the character of the 
product of writing instruction at Gary. 

The rate of dictation was based upon a number of 
determinations by Freeman,^ Courtis^ and others, of the 
rate at which children write when writing freely (as in 
reproducing a story). In other words, the material 
was dictated at the rate at which children ordinarily 
write, in order to secure samples whose quality might 
correspond to the quality of their ordinary writing. This 
method prevents over emphasis on quahty. It forces 
some children to write at what is for them an abnormally 
high rate. The purpose of the test is not to secure the 
best writing of which the children are capable, but to 
determine how many of the children have been developed 
to the required quality level at the given rate level.^ As 
the results of the free choice test show, the rates at which 
the material was dictated were almost exactly the rates 

fourteenth Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of 
Education, pages 56, 70, 76. 

''The method of this test did not function at Gary because there was 
no tendency on the part of the children to over emphasize quality. 



HANDWRITING 53 

of writing chosen by the children in the free choice test.* 
From the foregoing discussion it will be seen that con- 
clusions as to writing abilities of the Gary children are 
based upon a series of measurements which give oppor- 
tunity for significant variations in performance. 

METHOD OF SCORING 

The scores for rate of writing in the free choice test 
were determined as follows: Immediately upon the 
completion of a test the examiner had the children ex- 
change papers. He then passed each child a score card.^ 
In all grades the children filled out the blanks on the 
card and then in grades five to twelve, by the aid of the 
count of the letters of the test passages printed on the 
back of the card, they determined the number of letters 
that had been written in two minutes. Later this 
count was verified by the examiners, mistakes noted 
and counted, and the rate computed. 

It was assumed that the letters written were of equal 
difiiculty, although this was known not to be the case. 
The letter "i" is much easier to make than "g," for 
example. However, in writing one hundred words the 
relative frequency of the different letters is so constant 
(Table VII) that the errors due to differences in the 
difficulty of the various letters are negligible. The third 
and fourth grade scores may be in error by a small 

^In grades eleven and twelve the controlled rate was approximately ten 
letters per minute lower than in the free choice test. 
^See Appendix B, page 488. 



54 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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HANDWRITING 55 

amount from this cause, but as the relative difficulty 
of the letters is unknown, it is not possible to apply a 
correction for this factor. 

A far greater source of error in determining rate of 
writing is found in the difficulty presented to the children 
by certain words. For instance, the rate of writing of 
the third grade in the free choice test was but five^ letters 
per minute. The fourth and other grade rates for these 
same tests are in substantial agreement (fourth grade 
42-44). It is probable, therefore, that some factor was 
operating to depress the third grade scores in the free 
choice test. 

Upon examining the test material from this point of 
view, one is struck by the difficulty of the first phrase: 
"Fourscore and seven years ago." This is probably 
the whole cause of the low score. The material was 
too difficult for third grade children. However, no 
trace of similar effects is observable in other grades. 

In the dictation tests, no measurement of rate was 
necessary as the tests were constructed to be dictated 
at a given rate. The formula used in the construction 
of the tests was: 

T = nr + ^ 

in which T = the total time allowed, n == the number 
of letters to be written, and r = the rate in seconds per 
letter. The correction y\ is an allowance made for 
the time needed for dictation, the rate of reading being 
^See Table TV, page 41. 



56 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

ten letters per second. The value of r for the various 
grades was as follows: 

Grades 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 

r = 2.40 1.87 1.36 1.05 .88 .75 .64 

In the composition and reproduction tests the children 
counted the number of words written and recorded their 
scores on their papers. These scores were later verified 
by the examiner and transferred to cards. 

For the composition and reproduction tests the scores 
in words written per minute were converted to letters 
per minute by determining the average number of letters 
per word for a series of papers in each grade. After 
four or five papers the results are constant. In the sixth 
grade ten papers chosen at random were used (Table 
VIII, page 57) . In other grades tabulations were carried 
to constant results only, not less than five papers being 
used in any grade. 

The average values finally selected for converting word 
per minute into letters per minute will be found in 
Table IX, page 58. 

MEASUREMENT OF QUALITY 

The Ayres Handwriting Scale ("Three Slant" edition) 
was employed to determine quality. This scale con- 
sists of a series of specimens of handwriting ranging in 
quality from very bad to very good. The samples were 
chosen on a basis of "legibility"; that is, careful records 
were made of the time required to read a large number 
of different samples and certain of these were chosen 



HANDWRITING 



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as units in a scale. The differences in legibility from 
sample to sample were made equal.^ 

In using the scale, a sample of writing is compared 
with the sample of the scale until one is found which 
corresponds in general quality with the sample being 
measured. The number of the scale sample is then 
noted and the specimen being measured is given the same 
value. If the sample being measured falls between two 
scale samples, it is given a value to correspond. 

RELIABILITY OF RESULTS 

In order to make the reported handwriting results 
as reliable as possible, the eighth grade papers in all 

TABLE rX 

Average Values for Changing Rate of Writing from Words Per 
Minute to Letters Per Minute 



GRADE 


composition 


REPRODUCTION 




TEST I 


TESTH 


TEST in 


4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


3.4 
3.5 
3.6 
3.7 
3.9 
3.9 
3.9 
4.0 
4.0 


3.4 
3.4 
3.4 


4.0 
4.0 
4.0 
4.0 


3.4 
3.6 
3.5 

3.5 

3.8 



This table is to be read as follows: The rate of writing in the com- 
position test in the fourth grade was changed to letters per minute by 
multiplying the number of words written per minute by 3.4. The 
resulting values are the true rates within approximately i per cent. 

^See Bulletin No. 113, Division of Education, Russell Sage Foundation. 



HANDWRITING 59 

the writing tests were scored by from three to five judges 
and the median scores taken as the real quality of the 
samples. The scores are given in full for one class 
(Table X, page 60 and Figure 11, page 62). Although 
individual judges differ widely on some samples, yet the 
scores as a whole show close agreement. Of the 170 
individual ratings on the 34 papers of the class, 73, or 
43 per cent., agree exactly with the median scores, 57 
more, or 34 per cent., fall within five points, or half a 
step of the scale, and only six, or 3.5 per cent., of the 
judgments differ more than one step from the median 
value. The average deviation of the individual judg- 
ments from the medians is 4.3 points, slightly less than 
half a step on the scale. But 47 of the 97 deviations 
were positive and 50 negative, so that the median score 
of the class as determined by each of the judges alone is 
closely the same as the median class score determined 
from the median score on each sample. For two of the 
judges the differences are zero. Two judges differ by 
one point only, and the other by six points. If the 
actual median scores are used, all the differences, except 
one, are zero. The effect of combining the scores of 
the different judges is to eliminate the wide variations 
which occur with each judge on certain samples. 

The constancy of the general results is quite remark- 
able. The average deviation of the judges in 190 1 
judgments of the papers of five eighth grade classes is 
3.9 points. That is, a single judgment will, on the aver- 
age, differ from the median of five independent judgments 



6o 



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Variations in Quality Scores Assigned by Means of Ayres 
Scalei 

HANDWRITING-VARIATIONS IN SCORING 



QUALITY-AYRES 
20 40 60 



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JUDGE E 




62 



HANDWRITING 63 



Figure ii — Continued 

Diagrams at the left hand side of the figure represent individual papers. 
The numbers 8, 17, 31, 34, etc., refer to the numbers of the papers in 
Table X. Letters A, B, C, D, and E refer to the different judges. 
CL indicates values for class as a whole. Each light line in the diagrams 
represents the value assigned the sample by one judge. Each heavy line 
represents the value adopted as the true value of the sample. 

The scale along the top of the figure represents quality on the Ayres 
Scale. The diagrams show that for the class as a whole the class score 
as determined from the scores of each single judge, except D, agrees 
closely with the value as determined from the combined scores of the 
five independent judges. 

Diagram marked 8 represents the score of a sample upon "which 
there was close agreement between the five judges. Paper 17 represents 
the scores for a sample in which Judge D showed a wide variation. 
Papers 31 and 34 represent samples on which there was a little agree- 
ment between the different judges. 

The diagrams on the right hand side of the figure show the distributions 
of the deviations from the scores adopted as the true value of the samples. 
The scale at the top shows the magnitude and quality of the deviations. 
The scale at the right of each distribution shows the number of deviations 
of a given type, as do also the figures written in the diagrams just above 
the base line. Diagram for Judge A is to be read as follows : 

Out of the 34 papers. Judge A gave 3 scores which were 10 points 
higher than the proper value of the paper, 8 scores which were 5 points 
higher, 14 scores which agrxied exactly with the true value, 8 scores 
which were 5 points lower than the true value, and i which was 15 points 
lower. 

Note that Judges C and E have a tendency to score papers too low 
while Judge A has a tendency to score papers too high. Note also that 
in the distributions of the deviations for the class as a whole the dis- 
tribution is symmetrical about the zero point, that 130 out of 170 devia- 
tions are not greater than 5 points. 



64 



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66 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

less than half a unit of the scale. Of 1901 Judgments, 
931, or 49 per cent., agreed exactly with the median 
value for the sample. Of the remaining Judgments, 
497 were positive and 473 were negative. All the evi- 
dences show, therefore, that the Judges used the scale 
in a consistent manner, and that a class score, even when 
determined by a single Judge, would not be in error 
more than a small part of one division of the scale. 

The quality of the v/riting of grades other than the 
eighth was determined by the scoring of one Judge. In 
twenty two classes, however, mainly of the fourth and 
sixth grades, the papers were scored by two Judges. 
The median difference in the median scores for the 
various classes as determined by the two Judges inde- 
pendently is again a very small part of one step of the 
scale. These figures make it possible to say that the 
scores of the various classes may be depended upon to 
represent the quality of "writing" actually found in 
the papers within a third of one division of the scale. 

STANDARDS OF JUDGMENT 

To give the reported results real objective validity, 
the Gary Judges scored a set of "standard samples." 
Part of these were taken from the Thorndike Scale, and 
the rest are the samples published by Thorndike for the 
purposes of teacher training, known as Supplement A.* 
The values assigned these samples by the Gary Judges are 



^Teachers College Record, November, 1914. 



HANDWRITING 



67 



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68 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Table XII — Continued 

This table is to be read as follows : Sample 221 was one of those rated 
60 by the Gary judges and was given a different rating by the Ayres 
judges. Sample 23 was rated 60 by the Ayres judges and was given a 
different rating by the Gary judge. Sample 106 was rated 60 by both 
sets of judges. The Thorndike value of sample 221 was 10.2, of sample 
23 was ii.o, of sample 106 was ii.o, etc. The nine samples rated 60 
Ayres by the Gary judges ranged in value according to Thorndike from 
10.2 to 13.2. The median score was 12.0. Therefore, according to the 
Gary judges, 60 Ayres is, in general, equivalent to 12.0 Thorndike 
(A. D. ± .7). Similarly, according to the Ayres judges, 60 Ayres is, in 
general, equivalent to 12.1 Thorndike (A. D. ± .6). 

In similar fashion, in the second part of the table, all samples hav- 
ing the same Thorndike value (12.35) are grouped together and the 
average A3Tes value found. According to the Gary judges this value is 
62.5 ± 4.4, according to the Ayres judges it is 64 ± 4.8. Each of the 
values in Table XI was determined in similar fashion. 



given in Table XI, pages 64 and 65. Any person desiring 
to compare his standards with those of the groups of 
Judges in this survey need but measure these standard 
samples on the Ayres Scale and compare his results with 
those given in the table. 

The values of the standard samples on the Thorndike 
Scale were reported by Thorndike at the time the sam- 
ples were published and are also given in Table XII, page 
67. To check the Gary scoring, the samples were sent to 
Dr. Ayres with the request that they be scored by com- 
petent judges in the division' of education of the RusseU 
Sage Foundation, of which he is director. The median 
scores of five judgments on each sample as reported by 
him are also to be found in the table. These will be 



HANDWRITING 69 

considered as establishing the true Ayres value of the 
standard samples. 

The individual judgments of each of the five Gary- 
judges were checked against the Ayres standards. In- 
dividual variations were apparent, but the average score 
of the two judges who scored 90 per cent, of all the 
papers in this survey was found to agree almost exactly 
with the Ayres standards. These judges are C and D 
in Table X. The median score for each judge on each 
class for each case of multiple scoring was next deter- 
mined, and in no case found to differ from the average 
score of these two judges more than six points higher or 
lower.^ Further, the few classes not scored by them 
were compared, grade for grade, with the scores of the 
same classes in other tests which had been so scored. 
In only five cases was the variation more than five points, 
or half a step,^ including all differences caused by ab- 
sence, difference in testing conditions, etc. The Gary 
results, therefore, nowhere depart from the official 
Ayres standards more than half a step. 

AGREEMENT BETWEEN TESTS 

A by-product of repeated testing is the check the results 
yield upon the tests themselves. Questions as to the 
degree of correspondence from test to test, both of class 
and individual scores, will now be considered. 

The individual scores of 42 eighth grade children 

^The median of 20 cases was 1.3; 7 cases higher and 13 lower. 
*The median of 20 cases was 3.0. 



70 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

present for all tests used in the survey were compared 
as to scores for quality of writing in the three writing 
tests. In quality, 40 per cent, of the individuals main- 
tain the same position within the group^ when measured 
by the dictation tests as when measured by the com- 
position test. For comparisons between the free choice 
test and dictation tests, the index of correspondence 
is the same, while the result was S6 per cent, for compari- 
sons between the composition and free choice tests. 
Only one comparison for rate was possible, since in the 
dictation test the rate of writing was the same for all. 
But 29 per cent, of the children were found to maintain 
the same position in the group on the basis of comparison 
of scores in rate of writing in the composition and free 
choice tests (Table XIII, page 71). In other words, for 
the Gary children the free choice test yields samples of 
writing which agree closely with the quality of writing the 
children show in their compositions. 

For the various class scores the actual differences in 
quality between the class result and the generalized 
city wide^ results were found. In some classes the scores 
made in the composition test agree with those made in 
the free choice and dictation tests. In other classes 
there is a wide divergence between the three scores. 
For instance, class No. 28 Froebel, 4A grade, was, in 
the composition test, 2.3 points above the city wide 
score, the free choice 4.8 points above and in the^ 

'See XI of Appendix A, page 480. 
'See XI of Appendix A, page 473. 



HANDWRITING 



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72 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Table 13 — Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: If the relations of the individual 
scores for handwriting to the class median in the dictation test are com- 
pared with the relations of the score in handwriting of the same individ- 
uals to the class median in the composition test, it will be found that 
40% of the individuals maintain the same positions in the two tests 
within one unit of variability; that is, within 2.5 Ayres units in the dic- 
tation test and 5 Ayres units in the composition test. 

Note that the coefl&cient of correspondence between the free choice 
test and the composition test is 86%. In other words, the free choice 
test reveals the quality of the ordinary writing of more than five sixths 
of the children, and, for Gary at least, is a good test. 

dictation test 2.5 points above. The three tests thus 
confirm each other in showing that the writing done 
by this class is slightly above the grade level for the 
city as a whole. On the other hand, class No. 10 
Beveridge, 5A grade, is in the composition test 3.0 points 
below the general level, and in the free choice test 7.5 
above the general level, and in the dictation test 2.0 
points above. In this case the three tests give diver- 
gent results. 

If the 57 class differences in quality of writing in the 
composition test are compared with the corresponding 
differences in the free choice test it will be found that in 
29 cases the class scores are either both above or both 
below the city wide scores; in 28 cases there is disagree- 
ment, one of the two scores being above and the other 
below the city wide scores. The comparison of the results 
from the dictation and free choice test gives almost ex- 
actly the same results, although the actual classes in 



HANDWRITING 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



FiGXntE 12 

Class Differences from the Median in the Composition 
AND Free Choice Tests 




135 7 9 H (S « U 1921 23»2r«3l 33 3537 3? 41 4J4547 4951 5355i7 



The heavy line through the center of the figure represents the city wide 
median scores for both tests. Distances above the lines represent the 
amount which class scores are above the median; distances below the 
line represent the amounts which class scores are below the median. 
The magnitudes of deviations are shown by the scales along the left hand 
vertical axis. The extreme variations are marked with letters to show 
the name of the school. B means Beveridge, F — Froebel, E — Emer- 
son, and J — ^Jefferson. Solid line represents the results of the compo- 
sition test (c), dotted line represents the free choice test (F.C.)- 

The reader should note that in some cases the results of the different 
tests are in close agreement; in other cases the two give very different 
results. For instance, class No. 2 is shown as approximately 5 points 
below the city wide median by both tests. On the other hand, class No. 
54 is shown nearly 10 points above the median by the free choice test, 
and nearly 10 points below the median by the composition test. 

In the main, the curves show that the two tests agree in all grades 
within s points. 



HANDWRITING 75 

which disagreement is found are not the same as for 
the previous comparisons. Comparison of the results 
of the writing in the composition test with that in 
the dictation test reveals a little closer correspondence. 
Even here, however, there are 34 cases of agreement and 
23 of disagreement (Table XIV, page 73 and Figure 12, 
page 74). 

On the other hand, it should be noted that for the 
whole 57 cases, the amount of divergence from the city- 
wide scores is in most instances less than 5 points. 
In only 6 does the extreme divergence exceed 10 points. 
In other words, the three tests yield results which are 
in close agreement and the differences are relatively 
insignificant when it is remembered that the average 
difference of judgment in using the scale amounts to from 
3 to 5 points. The rest of the difference is probably 
due to marked differences in training. For example, 
in the graph it will be seen that in the lower grades 
the extremely high scores are often those of classes 
from the Beveridge school. The training in composi- 
tion work in this school^ is shown to be much below 
that of the city generally. Consequently the difference 
in the quality of writing in these tests is in some way 
probably related to the differences in training in English 
composition. 

From the table as a whole, therefore, it is possible to 
draw the conclusion that there is no general relationship 
between the three t3^es of scores. For the Gary chil- 

^See Chapter VI, page 234. 



76 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 








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HANDWRITING 77 

dren, one of these tests is as suitable a measure of the 
relative quahty of handwriting as either of the others. 
Whether or not this would be true in other schools in 
which children are given a different type of training is, 
of course, another question, and one that cannot be 
settled on the basis of the present data. 

RANGE OF INDIYIDUAL ABILITY 

One other point needs to be considered, the range 
of abihty within the class. The distributions of the 
grade scores for quahty of writing were found to- 
gether with the standard deviations for certain grades, 
and the coefficient of variabihty, based upon the same 
(Table XV). 

The range of variation in grades four, six, and eight 
proved to be much less than in the other grades. But 
these are precisely the grades in which the papers were 
scored by more than one judge. In other words, the 
effect of multiple scoring was to reduce the apparent 
variabihty. This effect must be taken into consideration 
when making comparisons with results from other school 
systems. For instance, in Rockford, 111., the coefficient of 
variabihty for grades five to eight is 17 per cent., which is 
much lower than for the Gary eighth grade results (24 per 
cent.), but no details are given as to the number of 
judgments upon which each score was based, or amount 
of variation in the standards of the judges, and the 
hke. 

Therefore, in making judgments in this survey, one 



78 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

should be governed rather by the samples of writing 
shown and by the comparisons from test to test and 
from grade to grade than by comparisons from city 
to city, except where tests are used to show general 
relations. 



IV. SPELLING 

§1. General Results 

SPELLING, like handwriting, is an ability which is 
considered easily measurable, and there are sev- 
eral scales and tests available for the careful evalu- 
ation of the results of teaching effort. Moreover, at 
Gary the annual time allotment for spelling is 496 hours 
as compared with 482 hours, the average time allotment 
of fifty American cities. 

TESTS USED 

Three methods of testing spelling were used at Gary. 
Conventional Hst tests were given to measure the con- 
ventional school product of the teaching of spelling. 
Next, timed dictation tests were used in an attempt to 
control the rate of writing, to prevent deliberation and 
to insure both automatic spelling and attention to ex- 
pression of thought. Finally, the papers written in the 
composition test were scored for errors in spelHng. The 
conclusions as to spelling ability are thus based upon 
three very different types of results. 

79 



8o 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 





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SPELLING 8i 

LIST TESTS 

The words used in the list test were the same as those 
of the Cleveland Survey (Figure 13). In the figure is 
shown also the division of the Ayres Spelling Scale in 
which the words occur, and the standards of accuracy 
for the different grades as determined by Ayres' investi- 
gations. The words are so chosen that the accuracy of 
spelling should be the same from grade to grade; that is, 
the fourth grade children should, according to Ayres, be 
able to spell the words by which they are tested with the 
same degree of accuracy (76 per cent.) as the fifth grade 
children are able to spell the words in the fifth grade test 
(76 per cent.). In other words, the increase in difficulty 
in the spelling tests is supposed to keep pace exactly 
with the increase in spelling ability. The average^ ac- 
curacy from grade to grade is thus constant. 

In the Cleveland Survey there were no spelling tests in 
grades higher than the eighth. At Gary, however, the 
eighth grade words were given also to grades nine, ten, 
eleven, and twelve. It must be particularly noted that 
this repetition of the same words through several grades 
constitutes an entire change of method. The purpose 
of the change was to determine how rapidly the abiHty to 
spell the eighth grade words was developed by high school 
work. 



^The term "average" is used throughout this report in its popular 
sense — to indicate the arithmetical mean, or the sum of all the scores 
divided by their number. 



S2 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



The list tests were given by the room teacher in the 
presence of the examiner. No suggestions were made as 
to how the test should be conducted, other than to ask 
that it be given in the "usual manner." Accordingly- 
some teachers dictated the words slowly, some rapidly. 

TABLE XVI 
Average Accuracy in List Words 





GARY RESULTS 


AYRES STANDARD 














CLEVELAND 


GRADE 


ACTUAL 

GRADE 

AVEHAG7? 


GENERALIZED 


AVERAGE OF 


ACTUAL 


RESULTS 




VALUES 


84 CITIES 


DIFFERENCES 




2 


51 


51 


77 


—26 


74 


3 


56 


54 


77 


—21 


78 


4 


53 


54 


76 


—23 


73 


5 


51 


54 


76 


—25 


75 


6 


58 


56 


76 


—18 


78 


7 


62 


57 


76 


—14 


76 


8 


53 


57 


76 


—23 


80 


AVERAGE 


54.9 


55 


76 


—21 


76 



Scores op High School Classes in Spelling the Words of the 
Eighth Grade Test 



Grade 


9 


10 


11 


12 


Actual Score 


57 
60 


71 
69 


79 

77 


80 


Generalized Score^ 


80 







»See Appendix A, page 474. 

This table is to be read as follows: The average accuracy of 
spelling of the test words for the second grade by the second grade 
children at Gary was 51%. Ayres' standard score for these same 
words was 77%. The Gary second grade record, therefore, is 26% 
below the standard. The average score made by Cleveland second 
grade classes in spelling the same words was 74%. 



SPELLING 83 

Some read the words twice and gave explanations of 
meaning, or illustrations of use that were helpful, others 
did nothing but read the Hst of words. That is, the 
conditions under which the tests were given varied from 
room to room. 

On 'the average, the Gary children spell the test words 
with an accuracy of approximately 55 per cent. (Table 
XVI, page S2). The scores made by the high school 
classes on the eighth grade words show a gradual im- 
provement. The record of the eighth grade class on the 
eighth grade words is 53 per cent., but by the end of the 
twelfth grade the same words are spelled with 80 per cent, 
accuracy. 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

For the list tests used at Gary, general standards are 
available, based upon tests in eighty four American cities 
as well as the results obtained in the Cleveland Survey 
where precisely the same tests were used. For instance, 
Ayres' standard for the eighth grade words is 76 per cent., 
the eighth grade score in Cleveland was 80 per cent,, 
the Gary score was 53 per cent. (Table XVI). The Gary 
averages are uniformly about 20 per cent, below Ayres' 
standards. That is, the Gary scores parallel the Ayres 
standard, but at a much lower level (Figure 14, page 84) . 
This result in connection with the fact previously brought 
out in regard to the scores made by the high school 
classes apparently means that such of the Gary children 

^See footnote, page s^. 



84 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 14 

Gary Scores m the Cleveland List Spelling Test Compared 
WITH Ayres' Standards 



7i 
90- 

75- 

45 ^ 

30 

151 



AYRES 3TANDA'RD 




C B 

3 



a A 
4 



C B A C B A C 



A C B A 



GRADES 



The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale at 
the left of the figure shows average per cent, of accuracy of spelling. The 
soHd line represents Gary scores (generalized). The dotted line rep- 
resents actual grade averages showing variation from grade to grade. 
The light solid Une represents Ayres' standards based upon results 
secured in eighty-four American cities. The portion of the curve to the 
right of the vertical line represents results in the high school grades in 
which the same eighth grade words were repeated from grade to grade. 

The Gary curve parallels the curve for Ayres' standards, but at a 
much lower level. The eleventh grade in the high school is the first Gary 
grade to spell the eighth grade test words as well as the eighth grade chil- 
dren in the average conventional school. 

In the graph as constructed the increase in difficulty of words from grade 
to grade is not shown. (Compare Diagram 21, Measuring the Work of 
the Public Schools, Cleveland Survey.) 



SPELLING 



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86 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 15 
Eighth Grade Class Scores at Cleveland and Gary m 

SPELLrNG THE SaME TWENTY WORDS 



Average Accuracy 
' Gary 53 

' Cleveland &o 




10 20 30 40 30 60 70 80 90 
AVEflAGE PER CENT OF ACCURACY 



100 



Each rectangle represents the score of one class. The position of the 
rectangle over the scale along the base of the figure shows the average 
accuracy of spelling of that class. The Gary classes are shown in solid 
black. Four of the five Gary classes are lower than any class in Cleve- 
land. 

as remain in school eventually learn to spell the common 
words used in the tests as well as they are spelled by the 
eighth grade children in the average conventional school, 
but in time about three years later. Out of 90 eighth 
grade classes in Cleveland, only 15 have scores as low as 
the highest eighth grade class at Gary, while 4 out of 5 
eighth grade classes at Gary are lower than any eighth 
grade class in Cleveland (Table XVII, Figure 15). 

An inspection of the individual scores of the eighth 
grade children reveals the fact that about 51 per cent. 
of these children misspelled more than half of the twenty 



SPELLING 87 

test words. As measured by such list tests, therefore, 
the Gary children would seem to have little ability to 
spell the words shown in Figure 13. 

DICTATION SPELLING TESTS 

Dictation spelling tests were used to measure the de- 
velopment of spelling ability. Exactly the same tests 
were given in several successive grades. The improve- 
ment in ability from grade to grade, however, makes it 
impractical to continue with the same words throughout 
all the grades. For instance, by the fourth grade the 
degree of accuracy on second grade words reaches such a 
high level (94 per cent.) that the words are no longer 
an adequate test. To meet this situation, changes were 
made in certain grades from easy to more difficult 
material. In these grades the children took both the 
easy and the difficult test. The continuity of develop- 
ment in spelling ability, as revealed by the series of 
tests as a whole, is thus unbroken. 

A second difference between the list and dictation tests 
should be noted. In the dictation test the words were 
given in sentences and a definite time allowed for the 
writing of each sentence. Thus the words "every" 
and "race" in the first test were dictated to the children 
in the sentence, "Every boy likes to see a race," and 
fourth grade children were allowed thirty two seconds 
in which to write it. The time allowances were changed 
from grade to grade to correspond to the increasing ma- 
turity of the children. 



88 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure i6 
Dictation Spelling Tests and Scheme for Giving to Different 

Grades 



Each Test Was Given to the Grade for Which Ayres' Standard 
Per Cent, of Accuracy Is Given Below ^ 



GRADES 


2 


3 


4 


s 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


Test 1 


66% 


84% 


94% 










Test 2 






66% 


79% 


88% 














Test 3 










66% 


79% 


88% 










Test 4 














65% 


** 


** 


** 


** 



**No standards given. 

Words Used in Dictation Sentences 





TEST I 


TEST 2 


TESTS 


TEST 4 


1 


forget 


beg 


victim 


judgment* 


2 


blue 


vacation 


ought 


emergency* 


3 


when 


importance 


occupy 


athletic* 


4 


seven 


wait 


senate 


organization* 


5 


every 


eight 


agreement 


annual 


6 


race 


complaints 


entitle 


committee 


7 


why- 


afraid 


government 


separate 


8 


grand 


destroy 


responsible 


receipt* 


9 


girl 


spend 


Wednesday 


especially 


10 


dark 


carried 


pleasant 


recommend* 


11 


rest 


rapid 


majority 


preliminary* 


12 


Hfe 


flight 


organize 


decision* 


13 


fine 


family 


minute 


allege 


14 


noon 


favor 


century 


principle 


15 


glad 


which 


piece 


convenient 


16 


age 


crowd 


assist 


proceed 


17 


name 


engage 


suggest 


February 


18 


still 


oblige 


serious 


cordially 


19 


made 


degree 


expense 


immediate* 


20 


near 


regard 


business 


disappoint 


AYRES 










scale 










set: 


J 


0-P-Q 


S-T-TJ 


W-X-Y-Z 



*Also given in list tests. 
^Ayres' standards are based on words dictated in lists, untimed, and are possibly too 
high by s per cent, for words in timed sentences. This is probably ofifset by the fact that 
the tests were given in May, while the standard values are for tests given at the middle o^ 
the year. (See Judd: Measuring the Work of the Public Schools, pige 244.) 



SPELLING 89 

The complete scheme for the dictation tests and the 
actual words used therein are shown in Figure 16. It 
should be noted that the dictation tests were made to 
supplement the Hst test, both in the character of the spell- 
ing product tested and in the levels of ability measured. 

In general, the results from the dictation test (Table 
XVIII, page 90) fully confirm those from the list tests. 
The eighth grade scores on the easy words for the grade 
was 69 per cent., on the difficult words, 50 per cent. In 
grades two to four the total growth shown in the two 
year interval was 41 per cent, (second grade 42 per cent., 
fourth grade 83 per cent.). For grades four to six the 
growth was but 34 per cent., from grades six to eight 
20 per cent., from grades eight to twelve ^^ per cent. 
In other words, the results show that the growth is 
small from grade to grade and relatively decreases as the 
difficulty of the words increases. This fact is shown 
graphically (Figure 17, page 91) by the change in the 
slant of the development curves in the successive grades. 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

The Gary results are consistently lower than the 
Ayres general standards. The magnitude of the differ- 
ence is approximately the same as for the hst tests (20 
per cent. Table XVIII, Figure 17). The Gary scores 
are lower also than those resulting from the use in De- 
troit of exactly the same tests. Measurement by dic- 
tation t ests thus confirms the conclusion previously 

iSee page 38. 



go 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



U 
1^ 1-1 



"t"U5 


M 


S^S 


N 


Se^S 








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1ST T 

Cork 

POND] 

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c^ 






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la 


t^ino 






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77T 


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Ol'^'O 






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w 


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1 i 1 


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coSo 




<Xi 






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t)<OtH 




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rH 


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which 
ur, six 
r cent 
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rade 
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Test 






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cent, 
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Test 1- 
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grade 
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test 
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Die is to be 
low Ayres' 
are given 
de more diJ 
ard. 


2 




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^^iT-g 




o 


This 
per cent, 
eight, SCO 
in Test 2 
below sta 



SPELLING 



91 



90 



60 



30- 



FlGURE 17 

Results of Dictation Tests 



TEST 



TEST g. 



TEST 3 



TEST ♦ 




A'AYRE^ 

G = GA1^Y 

LOV0RD5INL15X3 



C B 

3 



A C B A- 



GRADES 



Scale along the base of the figure represents grades. Scale along the 
vertical axis represents per cent, of accuracy in dictation tests. Solid 
lines represent Gary results in Test i (grades two, three, and four). 
Test 2 (grades four, five, and six). Test 3 (grades six, seven, and eight) 
and Test 4 (grades eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve). Broken line 
represents Ayres' standards for the words used in the dictation tests. 
In grades eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve the broken line does not 
represent the Ayres' standards, but the scores made by the same grades 
in the list tests given previously. It should be noted that in the fourth, 
sixth, and eighth grades, where it was necessary to change from easy to 
difl&cult words, both tests were given. 

Conclusions: The Gary scores are shown to be below Ayres' stand- 
ards. As the difficulty of the words increases, the slant of the devel- 
opment curves from lower to high grades decreases. In the fourth 
grade, the Gary results on the easy test exceed those of the Ayres on the 
hard words. In the sixth grade the Gary results on the easy words are 



92 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

FiGtTRE 17 — Continued 

just equal to Ayres' standards on the hard words. In the eighth grade 
the Gary results on the easy words are very slightly above Ayres' stan- 
dard for the difficult words. The four tests are, therefore, consistent in 
showing that the Gary children are from one to two years behind children 
in conventional schools in their ability to spell common words. 

reached in regard to the lack of development of spelling 
ability in the Gary children. 

COMPOSITION SPELLING TESTS 

As a check upon the formal spelhng tests, misspellings 
in papers written in the composition test were tabulated. 
The errors noted were of two sorts: sHps, or trivial mis- 
takes, such as the omission of "d" from the word "and," 
and more serious misspelHngs, such as "peise" (piece). 
The number of words misspelled per thousand running 
words was called a speUing coefficient. Thus in the 
eighth grade the total number of running words in 122 
papers was 27,610; the total number of all misspellings 
was 720. Of this number, however, 140 were slips, 
leaving 580 words misspelled according to the rules 
adopted for the scoring. The spelling coefficient for 
total misspelHngs was 26.07 (720 h- 27.61) and for the 
slips 5.07 (140 -^ 27.61). In other words, the general 
accuracy of the eighth grade spelHng in the composition 
test was 97 per cent, (i.oo — .026) if all the mistakes 
were counted, or 98 per cent, (i.oo — .021)^ if slips were 
not considered misspelHngs. Thus the results from the 

^(.026 — .005 = .021). 



SPELLING 



93 



composition test seem directly to contradict the results 
of the formal tests in spelling. 

The full degree of this apparent contradiction is shown 
by the actual and generalized city wide median coeffi- 
cients for both sHps and misspelHngs in each grade (Table 
XIX below, Figure i8, page 94.). The general accuracy 
of spelling is high — 92 per cent, in the fourth grade/ 
the lowest tested — and the improvement is marked from 
grade to grade. The total errors in the twelfth grade 



TABLE XIX 

Spelling Coefficients in Composition Tests 

Coefficient found by dividing number of words misspelled by number 
of words written. Represents number of words misspelled per thousand 
words written. S stands for slips; M for misspellings; T for total errors. 
S and T are tabulated. M found by subtraction. 





actual city wide medians 


generalized scores 


GRADE 










s 


M 


T 


s 


M 


T 


4 


16.8 


57.0 


73.8 


17.0 


58 


75 


5 


13.3 


52.6 


65.9 


14.0 


51 


65 


6 


10.6 


43.1 


53.7 


10.0 


41 


51 


7 


7.5 


24.3 


31.8 


8.0 


27 


35 


8 


6.1 


13.6 


19.7 


6.0 


17 


23 


9 


3.2 


13.9 


17.1 


4.0 


13 


17 


10 


3.4 


9.8 


13.2 


4.0 


9 


13 


11 


.84 


8.56 


9.40 


3.0 


7 


10 


12 


3.0 


6.0 


9.0 


3.0 


6 


9 



This table is to be read as follows: The fourth grade children at 
Gary in their compositions made 16.8 minor errors (shps) in each 1,000 
words written,_ misspelled 57 words per thousand, or made a total of 
73.8 mistakes in spelling per thousand words written. In comparison 
with the scores of other grades and for the purpose of smoothing the 
development curves, the city wide scores for the fourth grade are taken 
as 17, 58 and 75 respectively. 

*(i.ooo — .075 = -Qas). 



94 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 





FlGURE 1 8 




Total Errors in Spelling 


• 


niSSPELLINGSv 


70 • 


>^ 


60 • 


\ 


50- 


\ 


40- 


\ 


30 • 


\ 


20' 


SLIPS >v^^^ ^"^^^^^ 


10 


^ — ^-— --Zr^r^^^"^ — 


0- 





CBACBACBACBACBACBACBA 

2345 6789 

GRADES 



12 



Grades are shown along the horizontal scale. The number of words 
misspelled per thousand along the vertical scale. The curve labelled 
"misspellings" is based upon total errors; that labelled "slips" upon the 
number of trivial errors. The true misspellings are represented by the 
differences between the two curves. 

Note the great changes from grade to grade and the small number of 
errors made by high school classes. Analysis of the character of these 
errors would indicate that the apparent improvement is due almost 
entirely to avoidance by children of the use of words which they cannot 
spell. 

amounted to but nine words misspelled per thousand 
words written. On the basis of such data, the speUing 
abilities of the children in Gary would seem to be prac- 
tically perfect and the results reported in the previous 
tables grossly to misrepresent the true conditions. 
The explanation of this apparent conflict between the 



SPELLING 95 

formal, and the composition, spelling tests, is a matter of 
inference. Careful investigation, however, makes it prob- 
able that no contradiction between the results of the vari- 
ous tests really exists, and that the spelHng in the com- 
position test confirms the conclusions drawn from the 
results^ of the formal tests. 

In the first place it must be remembered that mis- 
spelling one word does not necessarily have the same 
significance that misspelHng another word may have. 
Consequently, instead of accepting the coefiicients given 
in Table XIX, page 93, at their face value, there must be 
proper evaluation, both of the words used by the children 
and of the words misspelled. For instance, to say that 
580 words out of 27,610 were misspelled is literally true, 
but entirely misleading. The sum of the frequencies of 
use of the fifty words which occur most often is 14,598 
(Table XX, page 97), or more than 50 per cent, of the 
total number of words used. Needless to say, misspell- 
ings of such simple words as "a," "the" and "and" are 
very few. If the fifty most frequent words and their repe- 
titions were eliminated from the total list of words used, 
the accuracy of spelling would be lowered from 580 words 
misspelled in 27,610 (98 per cent, accuracy) to 543^^ 

^Words actually misspelled in remaining 13,012 running words. An 
analsyis of the 31 words used in the eighth grade formal spelHng tests 
shows that but 3 words are rated by Jones (Concrete Investigation of 
the Material of English Spelling. W. Franklin Jones, University of South 
Dakota), as of fourth, or lower grade diflSculty, 7 are assigned to grades 
5 or 6, 13 to grades 7 or 8, while 8 of the more difficult words do not ap- 
pear in Jones' list at all. 



96 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

words misspelled in 13,012 (96 per cent, accuracy). 
That is, the composition test may not measure ability to 
spell on the same level of word dif&culty as the formal 
tests. 

On the other hand, the Gary children in their composi- 
tions used mainly second grade words^ (Table XXI, page 
100, and Figure 19, page loi). Eighty six per cent, of 
the running words and 53 per cent, of the different 



^In the appendix, Sec. IV, page 406, will be found a list of the words 
misspelled in the Gary eighth grade compositions, excluding slips, the 
frequency with which they were used, and the frequency of their mis- 
spelling; also the grades in which such words are first used by 2 per cent, 
of the children in the conventional schools (according to Jones). The 
reader should examine this list and see for himself the actual words mis- 
spelled by the Gary eighth grade children. The words in Jones' "second 
grade" list are not necessarily easy words. In fact Jones states, "The 
very words that give most trouble in spelling are almost invariably found 
in the second or third grade lists, and faithfully reappear throughout 
the subsequent years." (However, see Table VIII B, Section IV, Appendix 
A, page 414, for the sense in which this statement is to be taken. Even 
the hundred "spelling demons" are easy words for the average eighth 
grade class.) An analysis of the first 250 words of this report (page 3) 
shows 43 per cent, second grade words, 5 per cent, third grade, 3 per cent, 
fourth grade, 3 per cent, fifth grade, and 9 per cent, sixth grade or higher, 
10 per cent. N. L. D., 27 per cent. N. L. Hence, the importance of ex- 
amining the actual words misspelled by the Gary eighth grade children. 
(If these results are compared with those on page 230, the author will 
seem to be using nearly as many second grade words as the Gary eighth 
grade children. However, it should be remembered that Table LVI is 
based on 2,500 different words, and the results above on 141. The 
larger the total number of words, the smaller the percentage of second 
grade words. Thus, for the 396 different words used in the first 1,000 
words of this report the author's percentage of second grade words drops 
to 35 per cent.) 



SPELLING 



97 



words are of second grade difficulty. Also 55 per cent. 
of the 376 different words misspelled and 59 per cent, of 
the 580 misspellings were words which are classed as 
second grade words in Jones' vocabularies. Whenever 
they did have occasion to use more difficult words, these 
words A^ere usually misspelled. Thus only 11 different 
words ranked as eighth grade words by Jones were used 
in the Gary eighth grade compositions. These 1 1 words 
were used a total of eighteen times and misspelled fifteen 

TABLE XX 

Fifty Words Used Most Frequently in the Eighth Grade Com- 
positions 



KO. 


WORD 


TQIES 
USED 


NO. 

18 


WORD 


TIMES 
USED 


NO. 


WORD 








For'd 


9,994 


35 


For'd 


1 


the 


1,703 


when 


216 


me 


2 


and 


1,162 


19 


for 


206 


36 


very 


3 


we 


891 


20 


but 


193 


37 


am 


4 


to 


872 


21 


one 


191 


38 


came 


5 


a 


756 


22 


SO 


188 


39 


home 


6 


was 


708 


23 


as 


177 


40 


started 


7 


I 


652 


24 


out 


173 


41 


us 


8 


of 


479 


25 


aU 


162 


42 


she 


9 


m 


452 


26 


about 


160 


43 


our 


10 


it 


446 


27 


at 


157 


44 


would 


11 


my 


293 


28 


up 


155 


45 


with 


12 


had 


289 


29 


got 


152 


46 


could 


13 


were 


287 


30 


they 


152 


47 


down 


14 


on 


282 


31 


not 


147 


48 


after 


15 


went 


244 


32 


there 


145 


49 


her 


16 


he 


239 


33 


go 


142 


50 


him 


17 


that 


239 


34 


then 


136 








9,994 


12,846 



TIMES 
USED 

12,846 

133 

132 

129 

122 

118 

114 

113 

108 

107 

106 

100 

96 

96 

94 

93 

91 

14,598 



98 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

times, so that the average accuracy of spelling was about 
1 7 per cent. 

It will be remembered that one of the spelling dictation 
tests given to the eighth grade (Test 3, page 88) was 
composed of 20 words chosen from sets S-T-U of Ayres' 
Scale. When the eighth grade misspellings were analyzed 
in terms of the Ayres' Scale (Table XXVII, page 127), 
it was found that 18 words almost equally distributed 
among sets S-T-U of Ayres' Scale had been used spon- 
taneously by the children in their compositions. In other 
words, these 18 words constitute a spontaneous, self- 
imposed spelling test comparable with formal dictation 
test No. 3, the only difference being that the formal 
test was given to 127 eighth grade children, while at most 
only half this number used the words spontaneously. 
The correspondence in the results is almost perfect, as is 
shown in the following table which gives the average 
accuracy of spelling in the two tests: 





GARY SCORE 


ayres' 
standard 


DIFFERENCE 


Formal Test 


69 

71 


88 

88 


—19 


Spontaneous Test 


—17 



The apparent contradiction between the formal tests 
and the composition test is thus due to the fact that the 
Gary children in their compositions did not use many 
words of the same level of spelling difficulty as the for- 
mal tests. 

However, there is a further point to be considered. 



*m 



SPELLING 99 

The fact remains that the Gary eighth grade children 
made very few spelling mistakes in writing their com- 
positions. The question arises, "Is this favorable re- 
sult to be credited to the Gary teaching, or does it mean 
that in the absence of effective training the Gary children 
merely followed a natural tendency to avoid words which 
they did not know how to spell? " 

Unfortunately, the comparative data which are neces- 
sary to determine this point are not available, but one 
item of the results appears significant. One hundred 
and fifty-eight, or 42 per cent, of the words misspelled 
in the eighth grade compositions were misspelled also 
in the fourth grade compositions. That in spite of the 
normal increase in vocabulary which takes place from 
the fourth to the eighth grade, so large a proportion of the 
misspelHngs should be words which have been used, and 
used repeatedly, through four years of school work, tends 
to confirm the inference in regard to the failure of the 
Gary training, and to suggest that the apparent favor- 
able results are in no way either real or a credit to the 
Gary system.-^ 

In other words, the Gary eighth grade children in their 
compositions gave ample proof that they were unable 
to spell as well as the children in conventional schools the 
words of the Ayres' Scale which have been shown to be 



^The effect might possibly, though not probably, be due to the over- 
lapping of grades, or the presence in the eighth grade of many children of 
fourth grade ability, and the presence in the fourth grade of many 
children of eighth grade ability. 



lOO 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 





>< a 










tTRAC 
OF 

LLINi 




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65 






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s 






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p4 


XIENC 
PELL 
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h-l 

ft 




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o 




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MISS 
IS C 










UENCY 
MIS- 
XINGS 




■rjfCOCiOiX>t-'<*U500u:) 


o 






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SPEI 




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<y3t--^OOU5i-IOO(Mii3 


CO 






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DIFFERENT 

WORDS ARE 

OF TOTAL 


O 


u3UDt-->*co>acocoio 


o 
o 

1-H 


i:^ 










H 










& § 55 
° ^ 9 












05t-t-'5)<eot-THa)0^ 


iO 




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Oi-<C<li— iT-lrHrHrfi-l 


t- 




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3RDING 

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(McoTi<io«ot-oo;z;Q 






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« .to °^ 

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SPELLING loi 

FlGtJKE 19 

Character of the Words Misspelled in the Eighth Grade 
Compositions 

o«5 WORDS TOTAL Af^EA- 6426 WORDS 



2"" GRADE WORDS 



3"" ACCURAaS^** ACCURACY 

■17 r*' 



62 r. 



DIFFERENT WORDS 209 


D 

n 


74r. c=> 


USED ^746 TIMES 


5" 


58% 

51 r* 




MISSPELLED 344TIME5 
ACCURACY 94^0 




D 




2j797o Q 



A5% 



The small square indicates the scale upon which the remaining figures 
are drawn and represents five words. The total area of all the other 
figures represent 6,426 running words, the total frequency of use of the 
words which were misspelled by some member of the group. The large 
square represents the words which are classified as second grade words by 
Jones. There were 209 second grade words misspelled by the eighth grade 
children. These words were used a total of 5,746 times, and were mis- 
spelled 344 times. The accuracy of the eighth grade spelling of the 
second grade words was, therefore, 94 per cent. The remaining diagrams 
show the relative frequency with which words classified by Jones as third, 
fourth, and fifth grade, etc., were used, and the relative accuracy of 
spelling. UNL means words which were not listed by Jones. D means 
derivatives, and words not counted because proper nouns, etc. 

The figure as a whole shows that the words misspelled by the eighth 
grade children were mainly second grade words, and that as the diffi- 
culty of the words increased, the'accuracy of the spelling decreased. The 
exception in the seventh grade is due to the frequent use of the words 
"exciting" and "accident" which were written on the board by the exam- 
iner in giving the instructions for the test. 



I02 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



the most frequently used words in the English lan- 
guage. 

SCHOOL TO SCHOOL COMPARISONS 

Very small differences were found in spelling ability 
from school to school. In general, the Beveridge and 
Jefferson schools, which are less completely equipped to 
carry out a modern program, do rather better in speUing 
than the two larger schools, Emerson and Froebel, 



TABLE XXII 

Class Deviations^ from Generalized City Score 







1 






i 


composition 




dictation test ] 


list 


TEST 


TEST — TOTAL 


SCHOOL 




1 
1 








misspellings* 




CLASSES 
TESTED 


+ 


13 
5 
6 
6 


CLASSES 
TESTED 


•+ 


11 
5 
5 
2 


CLASSES 
TESTED 


- 


+ 


Froebel. . . . 
Emerson. . . 
Jefferson. . . 
Beveridge. . 


31 
17 
18 
18 


7 
1 
2 
6 


31 
18 
18 
18 


6 

7 
8 
8 


22 
11 
13 
12 


1 
6 
4 
5 


14 
1 
4 
6 



1 Class scores which exceed by i^y the generalized city score. 

*Note that in this division of the table the plus sign indicates less ability in spelling: 
for the larger the coefficient the greater the number of mistakes made. 

This table is to be read as follows: Of 31 classes in the Froebel 
school measured in spelling by the dictation test, 7 classes were markedly- 
above the corresponding city scores, and 13 below. In the hst test 
6 classes were above and 11 below. In the composition test i class 
had smaller coefi&cients than the average for the city and 14 larger. 
That is, in general, the children of the Froebel school are consistently below 
average of tbe city in spelhng ability, as was to be expected because of 
the greater amount of foreign parentage. 



SPELLING 103 

although the differences are relatively insignificant 
(Table XXII, page 102). 

§2. Critical Discussion 

SPELLING ability 

A spelling test is popularly supposed to measure a child's 
"general abihty to spell." Many persons speak of "learn- 
ing to spell" as if school training had for its purpose the 
development of a general abihty to spell any word without 
regard to whether the word had ever been seen or spelled 
before. It is easy to show by experiment, however, that 
well trained adults can spell simple phonetic words which 
they have never seen or heard before only with an ac- 
curacy of (approximately) 30 per cent.^ Therefore, the 
existence of general abihty to spell may well be doubted. 

The primary purpose of spelhng is to make a written 
record of the sounds used in oral language. To be sure, 
the word may not have been sounded by the writer, 
and may not be sounded by the reader, but all writing 
is capable of being translated into sound; conversely, 
all oral language may be recorded by means of appro- 
priate letters or groups of letters. In an ideal system of 
phonography in which each sound would be represented 
by a single letter, and each letter by a single sound, a 
person thoroughly skilled in the use of the system would, 
conceivably, be able to spell any word correctly, whether 

'From an unpublished Study by the Department of Educational 
Research, Detroit Public Schools. 



I04 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

or not he had ever seen or heard the word before, and 
even if he did not know its meaning. Under such a 
system school training would develop general ability. 
The child with little skill in using the system could spell 
correctly only a few words. As skill increased, the num- 
ber of words spelled correctly would also increase. 
Finally, when the individual had attained perfection in 
analyzing spoken words into their sound elements and 
in representing each element by its appropriate symbol, 
the person's spelhng ability would also be perfect. 

Unfortunately, English words are derived from many 
sources and English lacks an absolute phonetic system. 
English is, perhaps, more illogical in its spelling than 
any other of the modern languages. Ability to spell 
in English at present means merely the ability to repro- 
duce certain conventional symbols which stand for 
given words. The fact that some entire words, and parts 
of many words, have a phonetic basis merely increases 
the confusion. It may be true that phonetic analysis 
makes it easier to learn to spell new words, but so far as 
general ability to spell is concerned, our present phonetic 
system probably adds to the difi&culty of the situa- 
tion. 

Hence in the English language it is quite impossible 
to measure directly a child's general ability to spell. 
The most that can be done is to measure his ability to 
spell certain specific words. In other words, one cannot 
infer with certainty that because a child is able to spell 
certain words correctly he will also be able to spell 



SPELLING 105 

correctly words of equal or less difficulty. The spelling 
of each word stands by itself. It is, of course, possible 
to test an individual with a large number of representa- 
tive words and so finally determine the range of his 
spelling abinty, but general abihty to spell is seldom 
used with this meaning. 

This point is so important and yet so often misunder- 
stood that it merits more extended discussion. Proof 
of its truth will be shown by analysis of the results of 
tests of certain classes at Gary. In grade 7, class No. 
13 Emerson and class No. 14 Jefferson made almost 
exactly the same average score in accuracy (71-70 per 
cent., respectively) in spelling 20 given words, while 
class No. 44 Froebel made a very much lower score 
(52 per cent.) in spelHng the same twenty words. Four- 
teen of the twenty words were taken from Ayres' Scale, 
Set U, as being words of equal spelling difficulty as 
determined by the actual performances of many thou- 
sands of children. Three words were taken from the 
next easier set (T) and three from the next more difficult 
set (V). However, a mere glance at an analysis of the 
results by words is all that is necessary to show that while 
the words may be equal for seventh grade children in 
general, they are most certainly not equal for the children 
in these classes. The accuracies on individual words 
vary from 95 per cent, to 21 per cent. (Table XXIII, 
page 107). Even if the analysis be restricted to the re- 
sults of the class making the best record, a variation 
from word to word of 35 per cent, will be found. The 



io6 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

probable explanation is, of course, that some of the 
words had been studied recently at Gary and others had 
not. 

If a comparison of the results for the best and the 
worst of the three classes is made (Figure 20, page 109), 
the words being arranged in order of their difficulty on the 
basis of the per cent, of children spelling the words cor- 
rectly in the class of low ability, beginning with the 
easiest words, it is found that this order is not the order 
of difficulty for the more able class. It should be 
noted further that in spite of the fact that the average 
accuracy of one class based upon the entire twenty 
words is 19 per cent, higher than the other (the differ- 
ence between sixth, seventh, and eighth grade scores 
at these points of the Ayres Scale range from 9 per cent, 
to 15 per cent.), the more able class spells "celebration" 
and "respectfully" correctly less often than the less able 
class. If the class scores had been based upon the average 
of the first eight words, the results would have been 78 per 
cent, and 74 per cent, respectively. That is, although 
the two classes can spell 8 out of 20 words with nearly 
the same degree of accuracy, it would not be safe to 
infer that they could spell the other 12 words equally 
well, although seventh grade children, in general, are 
able to do so. If a similar comparison is made of the 
results for the two classes having closely the same average 
score in both tests (Figure 21, page in), the great varia- 
tion from word to word again shows that abihty to spell 
one word is no guarantee of ability to spell another word 



SPELLING 



107 



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io8 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Table XXIII — Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: The word "folks" was taken 
from set "T" in the Ayres Scale. According to Ayres, the average 
accuracy of spelling the words in this set by seventh grade children is 
79 per cent. Class No. 44 Froebel, however, made an average score of 
86 per cent., class No. 14 Jefferson a score of 85 per cent., and class 
No. 13 Emerson a score of 87 per cent. That is, the score of class No. 
44 Froebel was 7 per cent, above the standard. No. 14 Jefferson 6 per 
cent, above, and No. 13 Emerson 8 per cent, above. 

The reader should note that the average score of class No. 44 Froebel 
on the entire twenty words was about 52 per cent., which is much below 
standard, while class No. 14 Jefferson and class No. 13 Emerson have 
closely the same score (70 and 71 per cent.). Also that No. 44 Froebel 
actually spelled "respectfully" and "celebration" more accurately than 
No. 13 Emerson, although for twelve of the words the scores of No. 44 
Froebel fall very much below the scores of the other two classes. 

of equal difficulty. The spelling of each word must be 
learned individually. 

It may be objected that no word was missed by the 
entire class, just as no word was correctly spelled by the 
entire class, so that in one sense the results show merely 
that there are larger differences in ability to speU certain 
words. From this point of view, ability to spell a certain 
word would depend partly upon general ability to spell, 
and partly upon a direct knowledge of the particular 
word. That is, of course, true. The most difficult 
word of all was spelled correctly by 21 per cent, of the 
least able class. However, "general ability to spell" 
is seldom interpreted in such a sense. Any group of 
children reaching the seventh grade will have had so 
many contacts with common words and so many ex- 
periences in spelling words that the group, as a whole. 



SPELLING 109 

Figure 20 
Comparison of Class Scores on Individual Words 

I004 CLASS VARIATION \H SPELLING ABILITY 

CLASS AVERAGE A -71 B-52/. 




The scale along the base of the figure shows the various words. The 
scale along the vertical axis of the figure shows the accuracy with which 
the different words were spelled. The words are arranged in the order 
of the accuracy with which they were spelled by Class B. That is, 
"folks" was the easiest word, "suggest" was the next harder word, and 
"elaborate " was the hardest word of all. 

The solid line (A) represents results from Class No. 13, Emerson, 
seventh grade. The dotted line (B) represents results from Class No. 44, 
Froebel, seventh grade. 

Average accuracy of spelling based on entire twenty words: Class A 
— 71 per cent.. Class B — 52 per cent. 

The curves show that the order of difficulty of words for Class B was 
not that for Class A. The words in the test are given as of nearly equal 
difficulty by Ayres. For these two classes they range in difficulty from 
92 per cent, to 21 per cent. The curves also show that, although the 
two classes make very closely the same scores on the first eight words. 



no THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 20 — Continued 

they differ widely on the remaining twelve words. Note that for the 
two words "respectfully" and "celebration" the poorer class makes 
higher scores than the other. 

has a certain vague "general ability" to spell. In this 
sense the term means merely that in such a group there 
are sure to be some children who can spell at least part 
of a group of common seventh grade words. 

To most persons, however, general spelling ability 
is a term appHed to the ability of individuals and implies 
that the individual's ability to spell seventh grade words 
in general may be determined by having him spell a 
random sampling of seventh grade words. The results 
shown above indicate clearly that inferences from one 
set of words to another set of words may be in error by 
amounts equal to three times the average yearly progress 
from grade to grade. Under the circumstances, each 
test consisting of but ten to twenty words must be con- 
sidered by itself as a test of ability to spell certain words 
only. 

The impossibility of making inferences in regard to an 
individual's abihty to spell a word from his performance 
in spelling some other word of equal difficulty is brought 
out plainly by a study of the records for a single class. 
For instance, in class No. 13 Emerson (seventh grade) 
each word of the 20 in the test was missed by at least 
3 of the 37 children, while no word was missed by 
more than 16 children. On the other hand, only 2 
of the children spelled all 20 words correctly, and of the 



SPELLING 

Figure 21 
Comparison of Class Scores on Individual Words 



III 



/• 
00- 


CLASS VARIATION IN SPELLING 


ABILITY^ 


90' 
SO- 
TO 
60- 
50 
40 ■ 




/\ CLASS AVERAGE A=7I C-70% 

V 


30 








20 








10 

0. 


A> EMERSON 


f3 C-JEFFERSON M- 



3 .-. S 






The scale along the base of the figure shows the various words. The 
scale along the vertical axis of the figure shows the accuracy with which 
the different words were spelled. The order of words is the same as in 
Figure 20, and Curve A is taken directly from that figure. (The 
comparison in Figure 20 was between two seventh grade classes having 
very different average scores.) In this figure the comparison is between 
classes having almost the identical average score. In spite of this fact, 
the curve shows that the scores for individual words vary greatly. Foi 
instance, Class C spells "citizen" very much better than class A, but 
" arrangement " very much more poorly. 

The solid line (A) represents results from class No. 13 Emerson, seventh 
grade, as in Figure 20. The dotted line (C) represents results from class 
No. 14 Jefferson, seventh grade. 

Average accuracy of spelling based on entire twenty words: Class A — 
7 1 per cent., class C — 70 per cent. 



112 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

3 children who missed only one word, each missed a 
different word. The poor spellers of the class did not 
miss all the hard words, nor spell correctly all the easy 
words (Table XXIV, page 113). 

Equally significant is a comparison of the records of 
those whose average accuracy in spelling the 20 words 
was the same as the average accuracy of the entire class. 
Three out of the 37 children in the class had scores of 
70 per cent., while the class average was 71 per cent. 
That is, each of the three missed 6 words, but in no case 
did all three miss the same words. In only 4 cases 
did two of the three make the same error (Table XXV, 
page 115). The variation is so extreme that even to Hst 
the different words misspelled by three children of "aver- 
age" ability is to list 14 out of the 20 words of the 
test. 

Similar records could be shown indefinitely. It should 
be evident, therefore, that each test measures precisely 
only the ability to spell the words in the test and under 
the conditions under which it was given. 

On the other hand, as data accumulate, general ten- 
dencies may become apparent, and at last inferences 
may be safely made in regard to the general effects of 
teaching effort. "^ It should, however, never be forgotten 
that such inferences are inferences only, and a different 
choice of words or a different form of test may )deld very 
different results. When, however, more than one form of 
test is used and more than one choice of words is made 
without bringing to light any conflicting evidence, 



SPELLING 



113 



s9 

a o 

h9 



65 



fe? 



fe? 



65 



H Zj tD 

o (J 



65 



65 




114 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Table XXIV— Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: The easiest word for the class was 
"suggest." The average accuracy of spelling of this word by seventh 
grade children, according to Ayres, is 73 per cent. The record of class 
No. 13 Emerson at Gary was 92 per cent. All four individuals whose 
records are shown spelled the word correctly. The reader should note 
that while the individual in the class who had the lowest score spelled 
the four easiest words correctly, she also spelled the difl&cult word "dis- 
cussion" correctly, although she misspelled the equally difficult word 
"arrangement." The individual who had the next to the lowest score 
in the class speUed correctly words of every level of difficulty, from the 
easiest to the third hardest, and also missed words of every level of 
difficulty, from the second easiest to the hardest. Similar variations are 
shown in the other two records. 

The reader should note also that judged by the first nine words the 
class score is higher than Ayres' standards, although on certain words 
the class score is from 15 to 20 per cent, below Ayres' standards. 

inferences gain a reliability they could not possibly 
possess if they were based upon a single test. The term 
"general ability of the Gary children in spelling" will be 
used throughout the report to mean the final inferences 
drawn from the series of measurement of the abihty to 
spell particular words. 

As a spelling test by itself is a rehable measure of 
children's performances only for the given words, the 
selection of test words becomes an important matter. 
It would be as unfair to test a school system by unusual 
and difficult words as it would be to use as test words 
only those which had recently been taught in the class- 
room. Fortunately, in all written EngHsh certain 
words are used again and again, while others appear 
but seldom. Ayres has made a determination of the 



SPELLING 



"5 



TABLE XXV 

Misspellings of Three Pupils^ 







AVERAGE 


AVERAGE 


INDIVIDUAL RECORDS 




WORD 


ACCtJllACY 
AYRES 


CLASS 
ACCURACY 










A 


B 


c 


1 


Senate 


73% 


• 68% 


0% 


0% 


100% 


2 


Majority 


73 


59 








100 


3 


Necessary 


73 


59 





100 





4 


Celebration 


79 


66 


100 








5 


Mere 


73 


68 





100 


100 


6 


Respectfully 


73 


78 





100 


100 


7 


Testimony 


66 


65 





100 


100 


8 


Elaborate 


73 


57 


100 





100 


9 


Discussion 


66 


73 


100 





100 


10 


Arrangement 


66 


57 


100 





100 


11 


Citizen 


73 


78 


100 


100 





12 


Agreement 


73 


70 


100 


100 





18 


Receive 


73 


68 


100 


100 





14 


Suggest 


73 


92 


100 


100 






iThese pupils had the same accuracy score as the class (70-71 per cent.). 

This table is to be read as follows: The word "senate" whose aver- 
age accuracy of spelling, according to Ayres, was 73 per cent., was 
spelled by the class with an accuracy of 68 per cent. It was misspelled 
by both individuals A and B, but spelled correctly by C. The reader 
should note that individuals A, B, and C have the same average accuracy 
on the 20 words (70 per cent.), and this accuracy is the same as the 
average made by the class as a whole on the 20 words (71 per cent.). 
The three individuals, however, did not miss the same word, and in 
only four cases — the first four words in the table — did two of them miss 
the same word. To record the dififerent words misspelled by these 
three individuals of average ability it is necessary to list 14 words, 
although each of the children misspelled but 6 words. 



ii6 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

common words, and has also found the average accuracy 
with which they are spelled by American school children. 
As one of the main functions of the teaching of spelling 
must be to give children the ability to spell words which 
they use frequently, all test words were chosen from the 
Ayres Spelling Scale. 

LIST TESTS 

The conventional form of school examination of spelling 
ability is spelhng words in lists. It has no counterpart 
in daily Ufe. When a Hst of words is dictated slowly 
the child has time to recall consciously the possible ways 
of spelling a word. He has opportunity to work out 
by rule, by guess work, or by reasoning from analogy 
both the letters he uses and their order. The word ac- 
tually written on the paper tells merely that the mental 
process employed by the child — automatic response, 
reason, or guess — has in the particular instance yielded 
the correct result. 

Spelling in daily Ufe, however, has not this character. 
If one is conscious that he is uncertain of the spelling of 
a word, he consults a dictionary. The errors actually 
made are thus in automatic, unconscious spelling when 
the attention is concentrated upon the thought to be 
expressed so that the errors are unnoticed. It would 
seem, therefore, that a test to be a real test of spelling 
ability must be given under such conditions that the 
results would reveal not whether children know how to 
spell words correctly, but whether or not their actual 



SPELLING 117 

spelling habits when writing freely are correct. This is 
the reason for the use of more than one test. 

DICTATION TESTS 

The timed dictation of sentences is an unusual form of 
spelling test and a few points in regard to their construc- 
tion need explanation. 

The tests consisted of ten sentences, each containing 
two test words. The sentences in any one test were 
made of equal length within approximately five letters 
and care was taken to employ no words of greater spelling 
difficulty than the test words. The rate of dictation was 
controlled, each grade being given the material and rate 
corresponding to the median rate of free writing at its 
grade. That is, the test was given for the purpose of 
determining how many of the children could spell the 
given words when writing rapidly. 

A defect in this series of tests was that while most of the 
sentences were natural, a few were markedly artificial, 
due to the necessity of using certain words. Again, 
some of the test words occurred at the end of the sen- 
tence. The child who is naturally slow, and who in such 
a test is compelled to write at a rate higher than his 
natural rate, tends to omit the last words of the sentence. 
Such omissions were counted as misspellings. The test 
words should all have occurred at the beginning or middle 
of sentences. 

Tabulations were made of the number of words omitted 
by children in the classes making the lowest scores in 



ii8 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Q 



ACCURACY 

IN 
SPELLING 




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NO. OF CHILDREN 

MAKING EACH 

TYPE OF 

MISTAKE 


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SPELLING 119 

Table XXVI — Continued 

The table is to be read as follows: In the second grade class having 
the lowest accuracy there were 20 children. Of these, 19 misspelled one 
or more words, 18 omitted one or more words, 3 wrote one or more 
words illegibly, 7 substituted words for the words pronounced by the 
teacher. On 20 words the average mistakes in spelling were 6.9 words, 
in omissions 8.5 words, in substitutions .6 of a word, in illegibility .9 
of a word. Total errors were 16.9, making the average accuracy 15.5 
per cent. The omissions and substitutions are large only in those classes 
where the average accuracy is lower than 50 per cent. Note the record of 
even the second grade class when the class average was 57.5 per cent. 

each grade (Table XXVI, page 118). The maximum 
effect due to the omission of words is less than one word, 
or 5 per cent., except in classes where the accuracy of 
spelling falls below 50 per cent. In such cases, as Ayres 
has pointed out, the test ceases to be a spelling test and 
becomes a guessing contest. Only when more than half 
the children in a class are unfamiliar with a word are 
the omissions large. From the scores of children in 
other cities, it was not expected that the scores of the 
Gary children in any test would faU below the 50 per 
cent, level. Actual conditions were not foreseen in 
planning the test. 

It must be remembered, also, that a large number of 
the omissions are really due to misspellings. When a 
child has to "stop and think" how a word is spelled, 
he is not able to spell, as spelHng is defined in this test. 
The omission of words to catch up is, therefore, equiva- 
lent to misspelling. There may be some, however, who 
are unwilling to accept this point of view. They should 



I20 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

base their conclusions on the list tests which are untimed. 
Nevertheless, it is the opinion of the writer that the real 
value of a spelling test does not He in the certainty with 
which the children show their maximum abiHty, but in 
the certainty with which it points out those children 
who fail to spell correctly in their ordinary written work. 

COMPOSITION TEST 

In checking the results of the different examiners for 
the same papers in the composition test, it was noted 
that there were frequent disagreements as to which 
words were misspelled. Some of the differences were 
due to mere errors in reading on the part of the scorers, 
but many were due to the inability of the examiners 
to agree as to what constituted misspelling. Finally, 
after repeated conferences of the scorers, definitions of 
misspellings and a mmaber of arbitrary rules were 
adopted. The papers were then scored independently 
by two observers. Each of the two made a Hst of 
misspelled words without in any way marking the papers 
himself. The two lists were then compared by a third 
person, and all differences in scoring by the first two ex- 
aminers were checked by this third person by reference 
to the original papers. In this way the scoring was made 
reliable, although perfection in scoring proved to be 
very difficult to attain. In considering results from 



^Those interested in this point should note the correlations given in 
Table XXX, page 133. 



SPELLING 121 

similar tests in other school systems as a basis for com- 
parison, it would be necessary to inquire whether equal 
care had been taken before such comparison could be con- 
sidered valid. 

The definition of misspelling finally adopted was the 
following: 

Any variations of the character, number, or order of 
the letters called for in a given situation, except those 
which are plainly caused by grammatical errors, are to be 
considered misspeUings and marked "E." 

The part of this definition to be particularly noted is 
that the scorers were unable to decide whether or not a 
given word was misspelled by examination of the letters 
alone. The whole situation had to be considered. This 
will become plain as each qualifjang rule is discussed. 
The following rules were adopted and used in marking the 
papers : 

(i) Make no record of any questionable grammatical 
errors. 

If a child wrote, "I only done my duty," 
the substitution of "done" for "did" was 
considered a grammatical error, and not 
an error in spelling. 

In cases of doubt, the rule gives the 
child the benefit of the doubt. 
(2) Regard all words in which illegible letters occur as 
misspelled, marking them "L". 

Illegibility caused by poor writing thus 
operates to increase misspelling. 



122 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

(3) -Errors in simple words caused by the addition or 
omission of common letters, prefixes or sufi&xes, 
are to be counted as slips and marked "S." 

Illustration: "I walk home an ate 
my dinner," the omission of "ed" on 
walked and of "d" on and will be marked 
"S" for slips. 

A slip is caused by some form of inatten- 
tion and is ordinarily a defect of the writing 
activity. It may not indicate lack of 
knowledge of how to spell, but is, never- 
theless, an error in spelling. The ex- 
aminers were divided in their opinions. 
Some contended that spelling ability is 
to be measured not by slips, but by errors 
in words of importance. The matter was 
adjusted as follows: Every error of any 
sort was noted. One tabulation was made 
of the total errors, and a second one of the 
slips alone. It is thus possible for the 
reader to decide the point for himself. 
But whether slips are to be counted as 
misspellings or not, it is certain that they 
reveal one characteristic of the training. 
A well trained, careful child does not make 
such slips any more than he misspells 
words. A change in the number of slips 
from grade to grade is thus as much of an 
indication of the efficiency of training as 



SPELLING 123 

a change in the number of words mis- 
spelled. 

Since a certain element of subjective 
judgment had to be reckoned with in the 
determination of which mistakes were to 
be considered slips, all doubtful cases were 
passed upon by three judges. No hard 
and fast Hne could be drawn between 
true misspellings and sHps, but the re- 
strictions given in the rule were adhered to 
throughout. 

(4) The substitution of one homonym for another is 

to be counted as a misspelHng. 

Illustration: Their for there, fairy for 
ferry, were counted misspellings, even 
though the words actually appearing on 
the papers were correctly spelled. 

(5) The substitution of one word for another, as 

lighting for lightening, is to be decided in each 
case on its merits. 

If the context shows that the child 
made a mistake in the selection of the 
word to express his thoughts, no record 
is to be made of the mistake; but if the 
word in question is incorrect because of 
faulty spelHng, it is to be counted as a 
misspeUing, and marked "M". 

Decision in these cases again involved 
subjective judgment, but as above, ques- 



124 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

tionable cases were passed by three judges. 
The number of such substitutions was 
not large. 

(6) Slight changes in common words will be marked 

as misspellings and not as slips. 

For example: than for them; were for 
where, etc. 

(7) The omission of hyphens in compound words, the 

separation of words into parts, as "some where," 
or the faulty division of words at the end of a 
line, are not to be counted as misspellings if both 
parts of the word are correctly spelled. 

(8) Proper names of unknown persons wiU be accepted 

as spelled correctly, but all misspellings of well 
known proper names will be recorded. 

"Wasington" as the name of a boy 
playmate was accepted as correct, but 
as the name of the first President of 
the United States was counted mis- 
spelled. 

(9) Faulty use of capitals, omissions of dots over "i's" 

or crosses over "t's" are not to be counted either 

as misspellings or slips. 
After the spelling errors in the compositions had been 
determined by the above rules, the tabulations brought 
up an added difficulty. Children wrote papers of vary- 
ing lengths, so that the possibility of error differed 
greatly. To reduce the results to a comparable basis, a 
coefficient of misspellings was computed for each child. 



SPELLING 125 

This coefficient was taken as the number of words mis- 
spelled per thousand words written; that is, the actual 
number of errors in spelling was divided by the 
total number of words written, and the division car- 
ried to the nearest thousandth. A tabulation of a 
random selection of cases proved that there was no 
relation between the length of a paper and the size of 
the coefficient of misspellings: consequently the values 
thus determined were accepted as a measure of spelling 
abihty. 

It should be remembered, however, that such a measure 
is a gross measure only. To misspell a word written 
correctly by most of the other children in a grade is a 
much more serious error than misspelling an unusual 
word. A truly significant coefficient of spelHng ability 
should be based upon the relative seriousness of the 
various misspellings. However, as no information bear- 
ing on this point was available, the gross coefficient was 
accepted at its face value. Hence the actual misspellings 
were also Hsted and analyzed. 

An analysis of the words misspelled by the Gary eighth 
grade children in their compositions on the basis of 
Jones' vocabulary list is given in § i of this chapter. A 
similar analysis was made on the basis of Ayres' Spelling 
Scale. There are fewer words common to the Ayres 
Scale and the compositions than there are to Jones' 
lists and the compositions, but the tabulation fully con- 
firms the conclusions reached previously (Table XXVII, 
page 127). The results show plainly that as the difficulty 



126 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

of the words increases the Gary scores fall more and more 
below Ayres' standard- 
It may be objected that Ayres' standards are too 
high. They represent, however, the average scores 
made by the children of eighty four representative 
American cities, and are not standards arbitrarily set. 
To be sure, the tests by which the standards were de- 
termined were given under conditions no more uniform 
than can be secured by the transmission of instructions 
in correspondence. The standards have, however, 
been repeatedly checked by subsequent tests under 
carefully controlled conditions and have proved valid 
(Table XXVIII, page 128) . The values set by Ayres ap- 
proximate the values which represent the average spelling 
ability of children in various cities of the United States. 
The differences from Ayres' standards are small, and 
vary from grade to grade. In some cases they are nega- 
tive, and in others positive. Many cities, indeed, show 
an average difference which is positive, and in amount 
equal to from 4 per cent, to 12 per cent. On the 
whole, therefore, comparisons with Ayres' standards are 
vahd. 

RANGE OF ABILITY 

In discussing the results of educational tests the varia- 
tion of individual ability within the grade is almost as 
much a matter of concern as the class score. A well 
graded, efficient system., meeting the needs of individuals 
at every turn, may be expected to have compact grades 



SPELLING 



127 



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I I I I I I I I I I I 



OS 00 OS OS 00 1- CO 00 10 I I t--^ 



O W <M W (M --H 1-1 iH I I 1^ I 



OCOtJ<U5COC<Ii-IO>IOt-Ii-I03CO 
IfS 00 1— I tH T-H r-( OJ 1— I t-<M 



>< 






1^ 


-'S'-^lOCOt-i-ICCO'-li-li-lt-OS 


CD 


00 CO u3 as U3 i;o to CO oco 


(M 


P '^ 


Ta<coi-ii-i 


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H 


■^ tH 


CD 


« 






fa 







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D e O 






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t/i tH C^ 

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4h en to j3 

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13 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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l + l 1+ + 



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SPELLING 129 

erf low variability. The range of variation within the 
grades at Gary is very great and the coefficients of varia- 
biUty large (Table XXIK, page 130). 

RELATION BETWEEN TESTS 

A series of measurements of a single type of ability 
affords an opportunity for a study of the relation be- 
tween the tests used. A number of interesting questions 
suggest themselves. Are the children who make low 
scores in the formal spelling tests those who misspell the 
largest number of words in their compositions? Will a 
dictation test or a list test reveal most accurately the 
children who make errors in spelling in their compositions? 

The scores of the children in the Hst and dictation tests 
show a greater correspondence than do the scores from 
any other two of the tests (Table XXX, page 133). 
Eighty eight per cent, of the 42 eighth grade children 
present for all tests maintain their place in the two dis- 
tributions within one unit of variabiUty. That is, 9 chil- 
dren out of 10 will be as much above or below the median 
of the group, relatively, in one test as in the other. The 
reader will, of course, note that the median deviation for 
these two tests was 24 per cent, and 20 per cent, respec- 
tively. If, however, the hmit of variation be reduced to 
half that figure, 60 per cent, of the children will be found 
to maintain the same relative place in the distribution 
whether measured by one test or the other. 

The correspondence between actual mistakes in spell- 
ing and the mistakes in the formal tests is such that three 



I30 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



H 

M 

h-t 

o 

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1^ 

Hi O 

IS 


CO<N(Mi-H 


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CTi C^J lO IC O rH 




ooooooooooooooooooooo 

tHitHt-Ii— Ii-It-It-It-Ht-ItHM 


H 

i 

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o 


OOlM«D-*T}<0005DU3T-Ht-»OOOi:DCO-^eO(NOCO 


Kg 
SI 


T-l r-i tH .— i T— 1 


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CO 

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OOiCT)OOOOt-t>«050U3U3Tj<rtOOTOC<IC<IrH.-H 



SPELLING 



131 



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t spelling t 

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t^ C^ "Tl TO cfi 



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132 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

fourths of the children maintain their relative places in 
the two distributions. The correspondence is sHghtly 
greater between the misspellings in the compositions 
and the dictation test^ than it is for the hst test, but the 
differences are scarcely significant. If sHps alone be 
considered, the correspondence with the scores in the 
dictation test is considerably closer than with the scores 
in the list tests, but if the total errors are to be considered, 
the relative merits of the two tests are exactly reversed. 
That is, the children who make slips in their compositions 
are the children who misspell in the dictation test, rather 
than those who miss in the list test; but if the combined 
scores of sKps and misspellings be counted, the corres- 
pondence between total errors in the composition test and 
scores in the list test is slightly greater than the corres- 
pondence between the total errors in the composition 
test and scores in the dictation test. If the limit of 
variation be restricted to half a unit of variability, these 
relations are altered very slightly. On the whole, there- 
fore, judgments as to the way children will spell in their 
compositions, based upon either a list or dictation test, 
are fairly reliable. 

Those unfamiliar with statistical methods wiU find 
the graphic record shown in Figure 22 on page 135 a more 
satisfactory basis for judging of the relation between the 
three sets of scores. While in general the correspondence 



^The Pearson Coefficient of Correlation for the relation between mis- 
spellings and scores in the dictation test for these same 42 children is .67 
(probable error .06). 



SPELLING 
TABLE XXX 



133 



Coefficients of Correspondence in Different Trials of 
Spelling Tests^ 



\ 


CLASS 

average 


median 

individual 

deviation 

from average 


TOTAL RANGE 
OF SCORE 


S = Slips 

M = Misspellings 

T = Total Mistakes. . . 
L = List Test 


5 
22 
27 
51 
70 


5 

14 
15 
24 
20 


0— 31 
0—87 

0—88 
5—100 


D = Dictation Test. . . . 


10—100 



1 Based on the scores of 42 eighth grade pupils. 

Coefficients of Correspondence 

Percentage of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Relative Position, 
in the Two Distributions Compared, More Than] One (or one half) 
Unit of Variability. 



1 unit 


§ UNIT 




s 


M 


T 


L 


D 




s 


M 


T 


L 


D 


S 





48 


45 


43 


62 


S 





24 


19 


20 


31 


M 


48 


— 


83 


74 


78 


M 


24 


— 


74 


45 


38 


T 


45 


83 


— 


67 


64 


T 


19 


74 


— 


34 


40 


L 


43 


74 


67 


— 


88 


L 


20 


45 


34 


— 


60 


D 


62 


78 


64 


88 


— 


D 


31 


38 


40 


60 


— 



This table is to be read as follows: If the relation of the scores of 
individual children in number of slips made in their compositions to 
the median number made by the class as a whole be compared with the 
relation of the same individual scores in misspellings to the median 
number of misspellings made by the class as a whole, 48 per cent, of 
the children will be found to have maintained the same relative position 
in the two sets of scores within one unit of variability; that is, within 
5 slips, or 14 misspellings. 



134 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

between scores in the composition test and the score in 
the formal spelling test is relatively close, there are 
among these 42 individuals some 5 or 6 who do better 
in their compositions than their scores in the list tests 
would warrant, and about the same number who do 
better in their formal tests than their spelKng in the 
compositions would warrant. That is, spelHng ability 
is specific, not general, and performance in any one test 
is dependent upon so many factors that performance 
in a single test is not a reliable basis from which to judge 
of an individual's performance in a related test. How- 
ever, if the two tests are closely aHke, as for instance, 
list and dictation tests, the inference will be more reliable 
than from performance in one test to performance in a 
test of totally different character, as from performance 
in a list test to performance in a composition test. 

The list test and the dictation test upon which these 
computations were based (Table XXX, page 133) were of 
very different degrees of difficulty, one being composed of 
words which were easy for the grade, and the other of 
words which were difficult for the grade. Search through 
the records of various classes brought to light one class 
in which the records in the dictation test and the Hst test 
were closely the same. This was class No, 11, Emerson, 
rated as a fourth grade class in June, 191 6. The average 
score in the list test was 55 per cent, and in the dictation 
test 6 1 per cent. The coefficients of correspondence based 
on the scores of this class were also computed (Table 
XXXI, page 138) . In this case the relations shown in the 



SPELLING 



135 



FiGtJRE 22 

Comparative Abilities in List, Dictation and Composition 

Tests 



VaritMlty Rjtia 



Coi TMpenjMic el L 1 5T- DICTATION 

&T.5I-70 v«. 24,-20?o 



COnPQSITIQN .'^PEIUNS 
CT. £2 Vt. I I 




s 



I r I ' I I I I ' I I ' I ' I I ' ' ' ' I I ' I ' I I ' ' ' I I I 

• 5 10 15 20 25 30 2-5 40 

Total Number of C«iei.4Z_Numb«r wrthi n I \\„U 31 ~33 Percentego of CorrwpondcncoZizZ^?. 

Rcmftrlu 

Correspondence List- LIictaildn 6&7o 



The scale along the base of the figure represents individuals — ^42 
eighth grade pupils in all. The scale along the vertical axis represents 
the position of the individuals in the distribution. The line marked zero 
represents the class median. The lines marked i, 2, 3, 4, and 5 above or 
below the median line represent differences from the median equal to one 
unit of variability (in this case, the median deviation of individual scores 
from the class median). 

For each individual the score made in each of the three tests is indicated 
by the lines. Individuals are arranged in order of their performance in 
the composition test; that is, individuals i to 8 had no mistakes in spell- 
ing in their compositions, individual 42 had 87 mistakes in spelling per 
hundred words written in his composition. 

The broken line is based upon accuracy of spelling in the list test. 



136 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

FiGXJRE 22 — Continued 

The scores range from individual 20, who missed none of the 20 words, to 
that of individual 41 , who missed 19 of the 20 words. 

The dotted line represents the scores made in the dictation test. 
The scores range from those of individual 16, who missed none of the 
words, to individual 39, who missed 19 of the 20 words. 

It is possible to tell from the figure for any one individual his relative 
position in the class for each of the three tests: thus, individual 11 stood 
very high in the list test, not quite so high in the dictation test, and still 
lower in the composition test, but in all three he was among the upper 
25 per cent, of the class. Individual 7, however, stood at the top of the 
class in the composition test, a little above the median in the list test, 
and in the lowest 25 per cent, in the dictation test. 

The curves show that about 75 per cent, of the individuals maintain 
the same relative position in the class distributions for the list and dicta- 
tion tests that they do in the composition test (within one unit of varia- 
bility). The figure shows also that the correspondence between the 
list and dictation test is closer than between these two formal spelling 
tests and the spelling in the composition test. Eighty eight per cent, of 
the individuals maintain the same relative position in the list and dicta- 
tion tests within one unit of variability. 



previous table are reversed. It is the list test that corre- 
sponds more closely with the scores for slips in the spell- 
ings, while the dictation test corresponds more closely 
with the total number of errors made. As before, the 
correspondence between the list and dictation scores is 
greater than that for any other relation. If the limit 
of variation is reduced to half the median deviation, the 
magnitude of the correspondence of course decreases, 
but the general relations are not greatly changed. 

The fact that a child misses certain words in the 
formal spelling test is not an indication that he will 



SPELLING 137 

misspell them in his compositions if he uses them. On 
the other hand, a child who misses words in either the 
list or dictation test is quite often the child who makes 
many slips in writing a composition and has many words 
improperly spelled. An attempt was made to check 
these conclusions by direct evidence from the three spell- 
ing tests. It was hoped that many of the words used 
in the formal tests would also be used spontaneously 
by the children in the composition test. Careful search, 
however, brought to hght but five words which were so 
used (Table XXXII, page 139) ; therefore the results are 
too few to warrant any conclusions except the two pre- 
viously stated, namely: (i) that measurement of spelling 
ability is a much more difficult thing than it is popularly 
supposed to be, and (2) that children, as a rule, use in com- 
positions only those words which they know how to spell. 

RELIABILITY OP CLASS RESULTS 

The preceding discussions have had for their purpose 
the full statement in regard to the unreliabiUty of the 
performance of an individual in a single test as a measure 
of his general ability in spelHng. Teachers and principals 
unfamiliar with testing work are often amazed to see a 
child whom they have been accustomed to rate as their 
best speller make a low score in the formal test, while a 
child who has repeatedly failed in all school work in spell- 
ing makes a high score in the same test. Their amaze- 
ment, due to the apparent contradiction between the test 
results and their judgments, has in many instances led 



138 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



TABLE XXXI 
Relation Between Results of Different Spelling Tests^ 



S = Slips 

M = Misspellings. . . 

T = Total Errors.. . . 

L = List Test 

D = Dictation Test . 



CLASS 

average 



19 
31 
50 
55 
61 



MEDIAN 

INDIVIDUAL 

DEVIATION 

FROM AVERAGE 



9 
16 
16 
20 
14 



TOTAL RANGE 
OF SCORE 



0— 55 

0—102 

0—157 

20— 85 

20— 90 



iBased on scores of 23 fourth grade pupils, Class No. n, Emerson. 



Coefficients of Correspondence 

Percentage of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Relative Position 
More Than One (or one half) Unit of Variability. 



WITHIN 1 UNIT 


WITHIN ^ UNIT 




s 


M 

52 


T 

53 


L 

48 


D 

39 




s 


M 

35 


T 

35 


L 

22 


D 


s 


S 


— 


26 


M 


52 


— 


61 


48 


30 


M 


35 


— 


35 


22 


4 


T 


53 


61 


— 


26 


43 


T 


35 


35 


— 


9 


30 


L 


48 


48 


26 


— 


61 


L 


22 


22 


9 


— 


40 


D 


39 


30 


43 


61 


— 


D 


26 


4 


30 


40 


— 



This table is to be read as follows: If the relation of the scores of 
the individual children in number of slips made in their compositions, 
to the median number made by the class as a whole, be compared with 
the relation of the same individual scores in misspellings to the median 
number of misspellings made by the class as a whole, 52 per cent, of 
the children will be found to have maintained the same relative position 
in the two sets of scores within one unit of variability; that is, within 
nine slips, or sixteen misspellings. 



SPELLING 



139 



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142 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

to the conclusion that because the tests are unreliable 
measures in the cases of a few individuals they are un- 
reliable measures of the class as a whole. Nothing 
could be further from the truth. The factors which pro- 
duce variation in the spelling performances of individual 
children probably in the whole cancel each other within 
one group, so that if the child of greatest spelling ability 
who ought to make the highest score in the test happens, 
on that particular day because of a severe headache or 
other disturbing factor, to make a low score, his place is 
taken by some other individual whose ability is relatively 
lower but who, under the stimulus of the special occasion 
and the peculiar conditions, makes a score much above 
that which represents his median performance. As 
a result, the scores of classes tested with due regard for 
the control of testing conditions are very reliable, and 
the results of surveys, such as the present, may be de- 
pended upon to reflect the true conditions. 

The extent to which these statements are true is shown 
by the relative standing of the 31 classes in the Froebel 
school in the three spelling tests (Table XXXIII, page 140, 
Figure 23, page 143) . As the three tests have very differ- 
ent scores, so that direct comparison of score with score is 
not possible, the expedient has been adopted of referring 
each class score to the corresponding city wide general 
value. The generalized city scores express the general 
development of ability throughout the Gary system. 
The difference between each class score and this general 
value shows the class standing. That is, a class that is 



SPELLING 



143 



Figure 23 
Class Scores in the List, Dictation, and Composition 

Spelling Tests 

' RELIABILITY OF CLASS SCORES 

— LI5T DICTATION ---COMPOSITION' 




• e 3 4- J 6 7 6 9 10 II 12 13 1+ 15 16 ir lb\9 20 2\ ZiZi i^iSlbZr IQ£9 iOStSi 



The scale along the base of the figure represents various classes from the 
second to the twelfth grade in the Froebel school. The scale along the 
vertical axis represents differences above and below the city wide general- 
ized score. 

The solid line is based upon results from the list test; the broken line 
from the dictation test, the dotted line from the composition test. 
^ Class No. 13 in all three tests made exactly the score chosen to repre- 
sent the city wide score for the grade. Class No. 20, however, made 
a score approximately 10 per cent, below the median in both list and 
dictation tests, but was very very low in the composition test. 

As a whole, the curves show that, with a few exceptions, the relative 
spelling ability of a class is correctly indicated by any one of the three 
tests. 



144 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

good in a certain test will have a score much above the 
city test; a class that is poor in a certain ability will have 
a score much below the city test. The magnitudes of 
these differences are, of course, not comparable; for the 
tests measure spelHng under such a variety of conditions 
that no single basis could be found for the reduction 
of differences to comparable units. The results show 
plainly, however, the general standing of any one class 
in each of the three tests. 

The correspondence between the Hst and dictation 
tests is close in spite of the fact that the differences in 
scores given in the table are gross differences, affected 
by all those factors of variation in attendance, etc., 
discussed in Chapter VIII. Classes numbered 15 and 20 
in the graph show the only marked disagreements. The 
general correspondence of the differences of the composi- 
tion tests with the other two sets is also evident, although 
for several classes the disagreement is marked. This is 
particularly true of the seventh and eighth grades. Class 
No. 20, which shows the largest divergence, has been care- 
fully checked on the basis of the scores of children who 
were present for three trials. The class scores were not 
materially altered by the differences in attendance. On 
the other hand, the relative position of the children with- 
in the class was closely the same in the three tests. 
The coefficient of correspondence for the Hst and dicta- 
tion tests was 90 per cent. ; for the Hst and composition 
tests, 80 per cent.; for the dictation and composition 
tests, 70 per cent. In other words, although this par- 



SPELLING I4S 

ticular class made a larger number of spelling errors in 
their compositions than their standing in the list and 
dictation tests would warrant, the effect is due to some 
peculiarity of their training, either in composition or 
spelling, and not to lack of correspondence between the 
spelling lests themselves. From the results as a whole, 
it is possible to say that, with one or two exceptions, a 
class which is shown to be high by any one of the spelling 
tests will be correspondingly high in each of the other 
two, and vice versa. 

CONCLUSIONS 

As the conclusions of this survey in regard to the 
spelling ability of the Gary children have been reached 
only after a careful study of the full data from three spell- 
ing tests, which differ markedly in character and in the 
conditions under which they were given, and as the re- 
sults of the three tests agree in their general impHcations, 
it seems to the writer probable that the conclusions would 
not be changed were the number of test words to be 
largely increased. 



V. ARITHMETIC 

§ I. General Results 

A RITHMETIC still holds, in public estimation, a 
A-\ prominent place as one of the fundamentals of 
-*- -^ both a liberal and a vocational education. In 
the elementary grades of Gary it is allowed armually 
958 hours of classroom time as compared with 1008 
hours in the conventional school. Relatively, both 
allotments are the same, being 19 per cent, of the total 
time devoted to the fundamentals. 

PRODUCTS MEASURED 

The products of training in arithmetic are many and 
of varjang complexity. They range from such simple 
skills as addition and multiplication, to such complex 
products as ability to reason in certain situations. 
Measurement of the simple skills is comparatively easy, 
but just what constitutes a legitimate thinking or 
reasoning problem at each stage of school progress has 
not yet been determined. Accordingly, no arithmetical 
reasoning tests were given at Gary. 

The mechanical skills in arithmetic selected for meas- 
urement at Gary were addition, subtraction, multiplica- 

146 



ARITHMETIC 147 

tion, and division of whole numbers and fractions. 
These abilities are at least fundamental for all arithmet- 
ical work, both in school and in later life. 

TESTS USED 

The' actual tests used at Gary were selections from the 
arithmetic tests in the Cleveland Survey, and the Courtis 
Standard Research Tests, Series B. The Series B tests 
were given twice, about five weeks apart, April 25 and 
May 31. 

RESULTS FROM SERIES B 

Half of the eighth grade children were able to 
work but 8.3 or less of the addition examples in the 
Series B tests in 8 minutes and at this rate the median 
accuracy of work was 55 per cent. In subtraction the 
median eighth grade score rose to 9.0 examples and 72 
per cent, accuracy; in multipHcation the eighth grade rate 
was 8.4 examples, accuracy 67 per cent.; in division the 
eighth grade median was 6.7 examples, the accuracy 74 
per cent. (Table XXXIV, page 148). The results for 
addition are shown graphically in Figure 24, page 150. 
In all four operations there are small regular increases in 
both rate of work and in accuracy throughout the ele- 
mentary grades; a growth that for three operations 
continues through the high school years as well. In 
multiplication, however, the development increases very 
little in accuracy beyond the eighth grade level. In 
addition and multiplication the twelfth grade accuracy 



148 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 







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ARITHMETIC 149 

Table XXXIV— Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: The fourth grade in Gary in 
the time allowed was able to work, in addition, 4.3 examples like the 
sample shown with an accuracy of 36 per cent. That is, of the 
examples tried, about one third were right; in substraction the amount 
done was S-o examples and the accuracy of work was 41 per cent.; in 
multiplicatibn the rate was 3.4 examples, the accuracy 37 per cent.; in 
division the rate was 2.4 examples, accuracy 24 per cent. 

The average differences of generalized from actual city wide median 
scores are as follows: Addition : rate — .2, accuracy — 2.4. Subtraction: 
rate — .3, accuracy — 2.8. Multiplication: rate— .4, accuracy — 3.5. 
Division: rate — .4, accuracy — 5.0. 

scores do not rise above the 70 per cent, level; the high- 
est twelfth grade accuracy (division) is 86 per cent. 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

,It is perhaps unfair to judge of achievements in terms 
of results alone. Comparative data are essential to 
throw light upon two important questions: (i) What 
degrees of skill are needed for business Hfe? and (2) 
what are the achievements of children in other schools?^ 

The same tests as those given at Gary have been given 
under the same general conditions to adults in various 
walks of life.^ The scores in addition vary from 2.9 
examples and 31 per cent, accuracy made by the lowest 
paid laborers in a large manufacturing establishment, to 
scores of 19. i examples and 89 per cent, accuracy made 

^See page 38. 

*See Bulletin No. 4, Courtis Standard Research Tests. 
^See Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 
Education. 



I50 



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ARITHMETIC 151 

by successful business men (Table XXXV, page 152). 
Thus there is evidence that the tests measure skills of 
value in life and that rates of 12 examples or more, and 
accuracies of 80 per cent, and higher, are necessary in 
many forms of commercial activity. The Gary eighth 
grade product measured by such standards is very low 
in rate of work, and inadequate in accuracy.^ 

Much more significant are comparisons with the 
achievements of children in conventional schools. In 
addition a score of 11.6 examples attempted (Gary 8.4) 
and accuracy 76 per cent. (Gary 57) may be taken as the 
average achievement of American schools in northern 
states (Tables XXXVI and XXXVI-A, pages 153 and 
154). These ''norms" are derived from tests given in 
May and June, 19 16, in cities of every type, large and 
small, and in widely separated states. Comparison with 
scores from large cities (Boston 13.7 examples, accuracy 
78 per cent.) would make the Gary results seem corre- 
spondingly lower, and with lower scores from the smaller 
cities, or from rural schools (a county in Pennsylvania, 
7.7 examples — 52 per cent.) correspondingly higher. 
Judging from all comparative data available, however, 
it is quite plain that Gary is low both in rate of work and 
in accuracy. 

The Gary scores in addition, plotted in relation to the 
median development curve based upon the scores adopted 
as representing average conditions throughout the 

^See also Hanus & Gaylord, Educational Administration and Super- 
vision. November J 191 7. 



152 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ARITHMETIC 

TABLE XXXVI-B 

Comparative Data, Series B 



H5 



SCORES OF GARY EIGHTH GRADE CLASSES^ 





CLASS 
NUMBER 


1st trial 


2d TRIAL 


SCHOOL 


RATE 


ACCU- 
RACY 


RATE 


ACCU- 
RACY 


Addition. 

Froebel 

ti 

Emerson 

it 

Jefferson 

Subtraction. 
Froebel 

Emerson 

Jefferson 

Multiplication. 
Froebel 

Emerson 

Jefferson 

Division. 

Froebel 

« 

Emerson 

Jefferson 


45 
46 
14 
15 
18 

45 
46 
14 
15 

18 

45 
46 
14 
15 

18 

45 
46 

14 

15 
18 


8.7 

8.0 

8.0 

7.0 

10.3 

9.0 
9.7 
9.2 
8.5 
11.0 

7.3 
7.3 
8.2 
7.0 
9.7 

7.7 
8.2 
5.3 
5.2 
9.2 


50 

58 
50 
53 
64 

75 
67 
72 
80 
92 

60 
68 
71 
66 
71 

70 

83 
57 
78 
81 


9.0 
8.7 
8.0 
7.2 
9.5 

8.5 
9.6 
9.5 
8.5 
10.4 

8.6 
9.5 
8.7 
7.2 
9.7 

7.5 
7.4 
6.6 
6.2 
10.0 


55 
64 
54 
68 
60 

60 
72 
64 
68 
81 

71 
82 
71 
68 
78 

85 
80 
88 
75 
95 



iSee page 194. 

United States, make evident both a difference in the gen- 
eral character of the development at Gary, and the fact 
that the scores made by the Gary children are relatively 
very low. The Gary curve is concave; the curve from 
the general results convex (Figure 25, page 157). This 
difference probably means that in the conventional schools 



156 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

most of the children have learned to add by the end of the 
fourth grade, and in the remaining grades there are small 
improvements in both rate and accuracy of work, due 
partly to increasing maturity, partly to elimination 
of the less able through non-promotion, dropping out of 
school, etc., and partly to the effects of training upon 
those who have not learned in previous grades. In 
Gary, however, progress in the lower grades is quite 
uniform in both rate and accuracy, being mainly in 
rate in the lower grades, and evenly balanced between 
rate and accuracy in the high school years. The level 
of work is, however, very low — so low that one is led to 
wonder how much of the progress is due to training, and 
how much merely due to the effects of maturity and 
elimination.^ For example, the twelfth grade scores in 
both rate and accuracy do not reach those of the seventh 
grade in the conventional school, and the eighth grade 
score at Gary is only slightly above the normal 
fourth grade level in rate and far below it in accu- 
racy. 

The median development curve in Figure 25 is based 
upon results from cities of every t3^e, large and small, 
and it is hardly fair to compare the Gary results with 
those from larger cities which are known to do better in 
the fundamental subjects than small villages and towns. 
However, a comparison of the Gary scores with those 
from smaller cities does not alter the general character 
of the conclusions to be drawn (Figure 26, page 159). 

^See Chapter VIII, page 357. 



ARITHMETIC 

FiGTIRE 25 

Development or Rate and Accuracy in Addition^ 



157 



Addition— Diagnostic Curve of Median Development in Speed and Accuracr. Gndet 4 to 8 InduriTe^ June 19tt | 


Sc^l 




Accuracr 

100% 


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The scale along the top of the figure represents rate, or the number of 
examples attempted. The scale along the left hand side of the figure 
represents ratio of examples right to examples attempted, or the accuracy 
or work expressed in per cent. Each point of the diagram, therefore, 
represents two scores — rate and accuracy. The position of the circle 
marked "4" on the general curve (broken line) represents a rate of 7.4 
examples attempted and 64 per cent, accuracy. 

The curve for the Gary results is shown by the heavy line. The cir- 
cles show the position of the different grade scores. 

The twelfth grade score in rate falls between the sixth and seventh 
grade score on the general curve, and slightly below the fifth grade 
accuracy. The eighth grade Gary results are not quite equal to the 
general fifth grade scores in rate, and very much lower than the fourth 
grade accuracy. 

The portion of the general curve below the fourth grade is not very 
reliable, but the difference between the general character of the Gary 



^Based on results at Gary and results from thousands of children in 
cities of many different types. 



158 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

FiGxniE 25 — Continued 

curve and that of the general curve is marked. The general curve in- 
dicates that the development of skill in addition is, in the conventional 
school, nearly completed by the end of grade five, while the Gary curve 
shows that there is a very small, but regular, increase in rate and 
accuracy from grade to grade up to the end of the high school years. 
In high school years there is no direct training for the development of 
skill in addition, so the progress from grade to grade must represent 
either incidental training, or the effect of the elimination of the less able 
by non-promotion. Therefore, the Gary curve as a whole would seem to 
indicate that growth in skiU in addition in all grades is due mainly to the 
same causes, and very little to direct training. 

All the Gary curves fall much below those of conventional 
schools. For all operations the twelfth grade scores 
in accuracy at Gary do not attain to the conventional 
levels of the eighth grade accuracy, and for all except 
multiplication the rate of work is also lower. The eighth 
grade results in rate are about equal to those of the 
conventional fifth grade, and in accuracy are lower. In 
division only do the eighth grade scores in accuracy 
much exceed those of the fourth grade in the conventional 
school. 

It is possible to find schools with lower records than 
those at Gary, but they are not common. For instance, 
in a bulletin issued by the University of Iowa, the scores 
made by the various Iowa schools in the same tests 
used at Gary are grouped according to the size of the 
town from which they came. The towns vary in size 
from those of less than one thousand population to more 
than ten thousand population, the class in which Gary 
would fall. Out of 848 comparisons of scores from towns 



ARITHMETIC 



159 



Figure 26 
Development of Rate and Accuracy in Four Operations* 

DfVELOPMENT CURVES Aie-ITHMETIC^ ^^EWE56 




The curves are drawn in precisely the same fashion as in Figure 25, but 
all scales have been omitted in order to bring the four curves together 
in one figure. The reader need only remember that displacement to the 
right means greater rate, and displacement toward the top of the diagram 
means greater accuracy. All circles represent scores in both rate and 
accuracy. The grades are indicated by the small figures near the 
circles. The solid line represents Gary scores. The broken line represents 
results from small cities. 

The reader should note that in all tests the eighth grade scores are 
low in both rate and accuracy. Except for multiplication the rate records 
of the twelfth grade never exceed those of the eighth grade in the con- 
ventional school, and in no case do twelfth grade accuracies attain to 
the level of accuracy of the eighth grade in conventional schools. 

^Based on Gary results and on results of tests given in smaller cities, 
May and June, 1916. 



i6b THE GARY SCHOOLS 

and villages of looo population or under, but 82 reported 
scores as low as or lower than Gary. This was approxi- 
mately 10 per cent, of the total scores. For the next 
larger size city, the proportion was but 7 per cent., and 
for the cities of more than 10,000 population, about one 
half of I per cent. How much allowance is to be made for 
possible differences in the care with which the tests were 
given and scored is not known, but the instructions for 
giving the tests are well standardized, the procedure simple 
and the results consistent. It would seem, therefore, that 
beyond question the Gary results are exceptionally low.^ 

CLEVELAND ARITHMETIC TESTS^ 

Results from the Cleveland Arithmetic Tests will 
now be considered. The Cleveland tests, it will be 
remembered, are diagnostic tests. That is, they are 
graded in difficulty for any one operation, so that by 
making comparisons on the basis of several tests at once 
it is possible to judge the effects produced by teaching 
effort. The portions of the Cleveland Tests used at Gary 
were those dealing with multiplication and fractions . The 
results will be discussed separately. 

The Gary scores in these tests confirm the conclusions 
from the comparative data previously shown. The Gary 
eighth grade scores are but 70 per cent, of the corre- 



^Out of 160 comparisons of Gary eighth grade scores with correspond- 
ing scores of 20 cities in Indiana, in but 12 cases were their scores as low 
as or lower than the Gary scores. 

*See page 39. 



ARITHMETIC i6i 

spending Cleveland scores in the simplest test, 82 per 
cent, in the more complex test, and 87 per cent, in the 
most difficult multiplication test (Table XXXVII). 
That the Gary scores are relatively lower in the simple 
tests than in the complex tests is favorable to the Gary 
training, as it means that the Gary children use their 
knowledge of the tables more efficiently than the Cleve- 
land children, but this favorable aspect of the results 
should not lead the reader to forget that in all grades 
and tests the Gary scores are much below those of 
Cleveland.^ 

The curves for the development of the different abilities 
at Gary are concave, while the Cleveland scores are 
convex (Figure 27, page 163). This probably means that 
the development of abihty begins, on the average, two or 
three years later in Gary than in Cleveland, so that the 
Cleveland curves approach their maxima before the Gary 
curves start to rise. The Gary results reach the Cleveland 
eighth grade levels only in the late high school grades. 

The significant facts of the comparison between Cleve- 
land and Gary scores are much more readily compre- 
hended if the comparison is put in the form of Figure 28, 
page 164. One can see at a glance that the progress at 
Cleveland between grades three and four is more than 
that made in grades four, five, or six, in Gary. Similarly, 
the progress in grades four and five in Cleveland is 
roughly equal to that in grades seven and eight in Gary. 

^Comparison with similar data from the Grand Rapids Survey proves 
that the Gary scores are also much lower than those from that city. 



l62 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ARITHMETIC 



163 



Figure 27 
Comparative Scores — Multiplication Tests 

THE GARY SURVEY 

s.i»oi_^-CJ_TY_. Te«N, MULTJPIICATION 



GARY 



CLEVELAND 




CBACBACHACB 

2 3 4 5 



c u 
6 



C B A C U 



The solid lines represent Gary; the broken lines, Cleveland. "A" 
represents results from the test of multiplication tables. "B " represents 
a test of one place multiplication. "C" represents two place multi- 
plication. For tjqjes of examples see text. 

The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
at the left of the figure represents number of examples correctly worked. 

Gary curves are concave; Cleveland curves are convex, indicating that 
development of these abilities takes place at Gary two or three years 
later than at Cleveland. i 



The Cleveland results are expressed in number of 
examples worked correctly in a given time. As ex- 
plained elsewhere/ the author considers that such records 
express but a very small part of the meaning of the re- 
^See page 208, 



i64 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 28 
Rates of Development in Multiplication Tests 

MULTIPLICATION 



C0MPA11150N 



TZ5T 
3 



CLEVELAND - GAUY 

GA15.Y GR.APE5 
6 7 8 9 10 



11 



12 



3 
1 






+ 

/ 




i 6 


7 


« 




1 






1 
1 








> 


• 






i .'^^^- 


' -- 




"CLEVZLAND 



CLEVELAND GRADES 
5 6 



4 5 



~^:7^ 



~- - GAUY 



In the diagrams the vertical lines represent the median grade scores; 
the horizontal spaces represent the multiplication tests. 

In the upper diagram the vertical Unes are based upon the grade scores 
at Gary. In the lower diagram the vertical lines are based upon the 
grade scores in Cleveland. In the upper diagram the dotted lines are 
drawn in the proper relative position to represent the scores at Cleveland, 
while in the lower figure it is the Gary scores that are represented by the 
dotted lines. 

From either the upper or lower figure it will be seen that grades four, 
five, and six at Gary fall between the third and fourth grade curves for 
Cleveland. 



suits; that for a complete understanding of the signifi- 
cance of the data they must be expressed in terms of 
rate and accuracy of work. Accordingly, the results 
of the Cleveland Tests have been thus tabulated, and to 
make the data from different tests easily comparable 
(that they might be shown in one graph) each rate score 



ARITHMETIC 165 

has also been expressed as a percentage of the score 
made by the twelfth grade (Table XXXVIII, page 166). 

The results in this form show that development in the 
tables is practically completed by the sixth grade 
(accuracy 91 per cent.) . The development oi the ability 
to use a one place multipHer, however, increases more 
slowly, and does not approximate its maximum develop- 
ment until the seventh grade (accuracy 84 per cent.). 
Development of abiHty to use a two place multipher is 
of still a different character. Increases are fairly regu- 
lar and equal from grade to grade, up to the eighth 
grade, but from this point on progress in accuracy 
ceases and the curve indicates increase in rate only 
(Figure 29, page 167). 

In other words, in the simplest work the development 
is completed early in school Hfe. The more complex is 
barely completed by the eighth grade. In the most 
difficult work of all, the development shows no signs of 
reaching a maximum, and progress is merely cut off at 
a low level by high school work in which no training 
in multiplication is provided. In Figure 29 the dotted 
line is based upon the Gary results in the Series B tests, 
and attention is called to the exactness with which two 
sets (Series B, multiplication test No. 3, and Cleveland 
long multiplication, set L) confirm each other. The 
meaning of such comparisons is plain; the more complex 
the ability, the less well it is taught at Gary as measured 
by intercomparisons of the results at Gary themselves. 
The evidence from the Cleveland Tests thus greatly 



1 66 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 






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ARITHMETIC 



167 



Figure 29 
Rates of Development in Three Multiplication Tests 



AeoMw DEVELOPMENT CURVES CLEVELAND Tests MULTIPLI CAHON 
1» 



TABLES 




RATE 



• 9 '• « 3t ^ J4- «5 7i 61 99 »9 

PERCENTAGE OF FINAL 5CORE.5 

The scale along the horizontal axis represents the percentage the rate 
scores of each grade are of the rate scores made by the twelfth grade. 
The scale along the left of the figure represents accuracy of work. The 
three solid lines represent the curves for the three multiplication tests 
which differ in complexity, ranging from a very simple test of the multi- 
plication tables up to long multiplication (four place numbers multiplied 
by two place numbers.). The dotted line represents the results from 
the multiplication test in Series B. In all, the circles show the position 
of the grade scores in both rate and accuracy. The curves differ 
markedly in their character; that for long multiplication showing no 
signs of reaching a maximum. The development is merely interrupted 
at the eighth grade. 

As a whole, the set of curves means that the more complex the ability 
the less well it is taught. 



1 68 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

strengthens the conclusions drawn from a comparison 
of the Gary results with those from other cities. 

The clearness with which such diagnostic tests^reveal 
the story of what is taking place within a school sys- 
tem is strikingly illustrated in the case of the fraction 
tests. Fractions represent, of course, a more complex 
t3^e of development than multiplication. The exam- 
ples in the tests called simple fractions were all of the 
type -T'+f or f — \, in which the only response called 
for was the addition or subtraction of the numera- 
tors. In the test called complex fractions, however, 
the examples involved reduction to a common denomi- 
nator and reduction to lowest terms. Further, the 
complex test included multiplication and division of 
fractions, as well as addition and subtraction. The 
examples in the test were of the type | + f • Twenty 
one was the largest denominator called for in any ex- 
ample and all the denominators were products of simple 
factors. 

The character of the development revealed by the 
results (Table XXXIX, page 169) is a confirmation of the 
conclusions of the previous discussions. For the test in 
simple fractions the increases in accuracy from grade to 
grade are relatively large and continue up to the tenth 
grade. For complex fractions the period of rapid increase 
does not begin until grade seven, and from that point 
is in accuracy only (Figure 30, page 171). In other 
words, the results for fractions differ from those for mul- 
tiplication in exactly the same general fashion as the 



ARITHMETIC 



169 



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lyo ^ THE GARY SCHOOLS 

multiplication results differ among themselves. The 
more complex the abihty, the less the development. 

SCHOOL TO SCHOOL COMPARISONS 

A comparison of the scores from school to school 
reveals rather larger differences in arithmetical abilities 
than in those discussed in the previous chapters. The 
school which is least well equipped to carry out a modern 
program, the Beveridge, shows quite uniformly in all 
tests a larger number of scores above the city median 
than the other schools. Jefferson is second, Froebel 
third, and Emerson fourth (Table XL, page 172). That 
is, the Emerson school has, proportionately, a larger 
number of low scores than any other school. In all 
schools, however, there are individual classes which have 
scores above the city median, and others which fall 
below it. 

A similar school to school comparison based upon re- 
sults in the Cleveland tests gave very similar results 
(Table XLI, page 173, Figure 31, page 174). Neverthe- 
less, the differences from school to school are relatively 
insignificant and probably mean merely that the Beve- 
ridge school gives more emphasis to the drill work. In 
Emerson, on the other hand, arithmetic is, in general, 
receiving less attention than in Jefferson and Froebel 
schools. In all the schools the very best classes have 
scores much below those made by children of correspond- 
ing grades in other cities. 



ARITHMETIC 



171 



FiGtJRE 30 

Rates ot Development in Two Fraction Tests 
DLVELOPMENT CURVED CLEVELAND TE5T^- FRACTIONS 




5IMPLL 



COMPIXX 



3 « 9 II 15 IS Zl 27 3» 



The scale along the horizontal axis represents the percentage the rate 
scores of each grade are of the rate scores made by the twelfth grade. 
Scale along the left of the figure represents accuracy of work. The two 
soUd lines represent the curves for the two fraction tests; one, the addi- 
tion or subtraction of fractions having the same denominator, the other, 
four operations with fractions having unlike denominators. For illus- 
tration of the type of examples see text. In both curves the posi- 
tion of the figures indicate grade scores in both rate and accuracy. 

The curve for the simple fraction test shows a smaller rate of rise in 
accuracy than the curves for long multiplication in the previous figure, 
and for the reasons there explained. The curve for the complex test in 
fractions indicates mere growth in rate up to the seventh grade, and from 
that point on, growth in accuracy only. 

As a whole, the two curves show that the Gary children have very 
little ability to work with fractions. 



172 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ARITHMETIC 



173 



MEASUREMENT OF REASONING POWER 

It may be contended by some that in place of skill in 
computation the Gary children are receiving a type of 
training which develops reasoning power instead, and 
makes Ihem better able to cope with arithmetical situa- 
tions after they leave school. 

The answers to this claim are: First, no evidence 
of such superior ability to grapple with arithmetical 



TABLE XLI 

School to School Comparison — Series B — Two Trials 

The results below show the number of class scores in each school 
which are more than one tenth of the corresponding city wide scores 
above or below the general results for the city as a whole. All four 
operations are combined. 



SCHOOL 


NXIMBER 

OF 

CLASS 

SCORES 

COMPARED 


NUMBER OF CLASS SCORES ABOVE AND 
BELOW CITY WIDE RESULTS 


RATE 
ABOVE 


RATE 
BELOW 


ACCmtACY 
ABOVE 


ACCUBACY 
BELOW 


Froebel 

Emerson 

Jefferson 

Beveridge. . . . 


176 
78 

104 
96 


34 

2 

37 

37 


27 

27 
27 
28 


50 

6 

30 

47 


46 
17 
26 
13 



This table is to be read as follows : Out of 1 76 class scores in Froebel 
compared with the corresponding city wide scores, there were 34 in 
rate and 50 in accuracy markedly above the median, and 27 in rate 
and 46 in accuracy markedly below the median. That is, the Froebel 
school ranks were slightly above the general results for the city. Simi- 
larly, the Jefferson school is slightly higher than the Froebel school, 
but lower than the Beveridge school, and much above the Emerson 
school in the abstract work. 



174 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 31 
School to School Compaeison 

CLEVELAND ARITHMETIC TEST 

5CH00L TO SCHOOL C0riPARI50NS 

HI.GHE5T AND LOWEST Fl FTH GRADE CLASS ES 
GfJADC 3 4- 5 6 7 a 



TE5TA 


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/ 









EMEfLSON \ BEVERIDGE B CLEVrLANO C 



Comparison of scores made by fifth grade classes in tlie Beveridge 
(highest) and Emerson (lowest) schools in Gary with the city wide 
medians 

The horizontal spaces represent the Cleveland arithmetic tests in 
multiplication and fractions. The vertical line represents the Gary city 
wide grade medians. The line marked "E" represents the scores from 
the Emerson school; line marked "B" — the scores from the Beveridge 
school; the line marked "C" — Cleveland fifth grade scores. 

The fifth grade class in the Beveridge school falls about one year 
above the average for the fifth grade city wide scores, whUe the fifth 
grade in the Emerson school falls about an equal distance below. The 
curve for the average scores of the fifth grade in Cleveland was repre- 
sented by the third curve except in the complex test in fractions, in 
which the Cleveland score is given as zero. The Cleveland fifth grade 
scores fall between those of the seventh and eighth grades at Gary. 



ARITHMETIC 175 

situations was discovered in the course of the survey, 
although the children were repeatedly required to 
score their papers, and to perform other work inciden- 
tal to the testing which required an intelHgent use of 
mathematical skills as a means to an end. Second, 
however well a person may be able to reason, his work 
in the world will be ineffective if he does not have the 
mechanical skill necessary to obtain correct results. 
In educational circles there are some who claim that a 
child will develop such skill as need arises, provided he 
has a motive for doing his work correctly. The reader 
should be careful to note, however : First, that the scores 
made by the high school classes show very small increases 
in ability over those of the eighth grade in spite of the 
fact that these classes have more or less incidental training 
in arithmetic through its use in algebra, physics, chemis- 
try, etc.; and, second, that there is no evidence of any 
beneficial transfer from the incidental use of arithmetic 
in the shop work and activities of the enriched cur- 
riculum. 

There should, however, be no confusion in the mind 
of the reader in regard to this point. The tests used 
were not given to measure reasoning power. ^ They 
prove merely that the Gary children do not possess the 
ability to add, subtract, multiply, and divide at a reason- 
able rate and with reasonable accuracy — defining reason- 
able as that rate and accuracy which is attained by the 
average child in the conventional school. 

^See Chapter VII, page 328. 



176 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

§2. Critical Discussion 

TYPES or PRODUCTS 

Training in arithmetic falls sharply into two divisions, 
(i) arithmetical computations and (2) reasoning. 

The products of the first type of training are mechanical 
skills or habits. Training involves building up a set of 
responses to objective stimuli. The stimuU themselves, 
the controlled associations called forth by them, and 
motor responses, are the elements out of which such skills 
are built. The products of training have two funda- 
mental aspects: speed, or, better, rate, the amount of 
work done per unit of time; and accuracy, or the re- 
lation of the work that is correct to the total work done. 
Both of these are easily measurable in objective units. 

The higher thought processes of the second type 
(reasoning) are much more complex, and the products of 
school training in them are much less clearly defined. 
Moreover, as in testing work, all reasoning problems must 
be represented through printed symbols, the actual results 
obtained in a reasoning test are merely unanalyzed result- 
ants of reasoning abiHty and abihty in reading. In view of 
the many uncertainties anddifl&culties connected with test- 
ing such abiUties, and interpreting the results, it was de- 
cided to limit the measurement of arithmetical products to 
the fundamental skills. 

TESTS OF SKILLS 

For the mechanical skills of arithmetic, well standard- 
ized tests and standards and a growing volume of com- 



ARITHMETIC 177 

parative data are available for interpretative purposes. 
The Courtis Standard Research Tests, Series B, measure 
the end products of training. Certain of the arithmetic 
tests used at Cleveland, namely, those dealing with the 
various phases of multiplication and fractions, trace the 
relative development of these abilities. The tests, as a 
whole, therefore, show plainly the nature of the devel- 
opment and the character of the product of the classroom 
teaching of the fundamental skills. 

The expression "end product" needs definition and 
explanation. In multipHcation, for example, it is easy 
to show that the products of training in the various grades 
differ greatly in complexity. In most school systems 
the children begin development of skill in multiplication 
by learning the multipHcation tables. At a later grade 
they master the technique of carr3dng. Soon after that 
they are able to multiply a four or five place number 
by any single digit, and finally they are able to multiply 
any integral number by any other integer. This is the 
end of the development in multiplication itself, although 
further training in the use of this skiU is necessary, A test 
which is designed to measure the most complex form in 
which a given skill is found is a test of the end product. 

The significant points to be noted in the foregoing 
discussion are two: (i) that some children in every grade 
above the third complete their development in multipli- 
cation as far as their maturity permits; (2) that each type 
or partial phase of development is in reality a distinct 
abihty. Each of these points will be discussed further. 



178 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



The type of ability selected to represent the end 
' product is, of course, a mere matter of convention. 
The convention adopted for the Courtis Tests is that in 
any operation the units selected shall be the smallest 
that cover all the essential elements. These elements 
for the different operations are as follows : 

Elements Covered by Type of Examples Used in the Arithmetic 
Tests (Series B) 



addition 


subtraction 


multiplication 


division 


1 Knowledge of 

Combina- 
tions 

2 Bridging the 

Tens 

3 Carrying 

4 Attention Span 

5 Fatigue 


1 Knowledge of 

Combina- 
tions 

2 Borrowing 

3 Fatigue 


1 Knowledge of 

Combina- 
tions 

2 Place Value 

3 Carrying 

4 Addition 

5 Fatigue 


1 Knowledge of 

Combinations 

2 Place Value 

3 Estimation of 

the Quotient 

4 Multiplication 

5 Subtraction 

6 Fatigue 



The smallest types of examples^ that can be selected to 
include these elements in their simple form are given below: 



addition 


subtraction 


multiplication 


division 


927 297 136 486 
379 925 340 765 
756 473 988 524 
837 983 386 140 
924 315 353 812 
110 661 904 466 
854 794 547 355 
965 177 192 834 
344 124 439 567 


107,795,491 
77,197,029 

75,088,824 
57,406,394 

160,620,971 
51,274,387 

80,361,837 
25,842,708 


3,597 
73 

5,739 

85 

4,268 
37 

6,428 
58 


94)85,352 

37)9,990 

73)53,765 

49)31,409 



^Except in subtraction. 



ARITHMETIC 179 

The figures in these examples are not determined by 
chance, but in accordance with a systematic plan. For 
instance, in the multipHcation examples the reader should 
notice that in multiplying 3597 by 73 and 4268 by 37 
a child is called upon to use every one of the combina- 
tions vof the three and seven tables except the one and 
the zero combinations, for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are all 
represented in the multipHcands. In similar fashion, 
care is taken to test all combinations and situations 
throughout the tests, the combinations omitted being 
only those which appropriate tests have proved are of 
extreme simpHcity. Equal care is taken in all of the tests 
to cover for each operation every factor mentioned above, 
and enough material is provided to keep even the bright- 
est child busy for at least four minutes. For in four 
minutes the average child will reveal any marked ten- 
dency to make errors because of a lack of control of those 
forces which tend to divert attention after a few minutes 
of continuous activity of a single type, forces commonly 
described by the word fatigue. 

The care taken in the construction of the examples for 
these tests makes possible the construction of other tests 
of equal difficulty but differing in every answer. At the 
time the Gary survey was begun, three such editions 
were in general use throughout the country. These 
were known respectively as Forms i, 2 and 3. Form 3 
was used at Gary for the first test, but in order to pre- 
vent any possible suggestion that there might have been 
direct preparation for the tests, a fourth edition, Form 4, 



i8o 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



was prepared and used for the first time at Gary. This 
was done before the tests of Form 3 had been scored. 

The tests were given under precisely the same condi- 
tions from the fourth to the twelfth grades, inclusive. 
Even in the fourth grade, children were found who 
showed by their scores that they possessed to a greater 
or less degree all the abilities measured by the tests. 
For instance, the percentages of fourth grade children 
who equal or excel the eighth grade median score for 
examples correctly worked are: 





ADDITION 


SUBTRAC- 
TION 


MULTTPLI- 
CATTON 


DIVISION 




FORM 
3 

6.7 
60 


FORM 
4 

6.3 
60 


FORM 

3 


FORM 
4 


FORM 

3 


FORM 

4 


FORM 
3 


FORM 

4 


Per cent, of fourth grade 
children equaling or 
exceeding eighth grade 
median 

Per cent, of fourth grade 
children getting one 
or more examples right 


1.5 
16 


6.0 
69 


1.0 
49 


.01 
55 


.05 
17 


.08 
21 



These figures would make it evident that the tests 
measure very simple skills, the teaching of which is 
completed in most schools by the fourth grade, since, 
at the time the tests were given, from one sixth to two 
thirds of the children "knew how" to get at least one 
example right. This means that were these children 
given time enough, they could complete every example 
in the test and get every example right. Therefore, as 
given, the tests measure skill, or ability to do, not mere 



ARITHMETIC i8i 

knowledge of "how to do." In the lowest fourth grade 
class (4C) there are none, or very few children, who, at 
the beginning of the year, can do long division, but by 
the end of the 4A classes, a knowledge of this process has 
also been acquired. The tests are, therefore, measures 
of the end product of teaching effort, and the changes in 
scores from grade to grade are due to changes in skill, 
not to changes in knowldege. 

Increases in skill from grade to grade are determined 
by three sets of causes. Part of it is due to increasing 
maturity of the children as they pass through the grades.^ 
Eighth grade children are certain to show a higher 
rate of work than fourth grade children, simply be- 
cause they are older and, consequently, have more 
highly developed nerves and muscles. Part of it is 
caused by daily use of the four processes in arithmetic 
in and out of school. A child is under a steady pressure 
from his teachers and his school work to perfect his skills, 
and both rate of work and accuracy are benefited. 
And part of it is caused by teaching effort. If a teacher 
of the sixth grade discovers that a particular child 
does not know certain fundamental combinations, or 
has faulty habits of carr3dng, or does not know how to 
control the critical pulses of his attention, she may make 
such explanations and provide such training that the 
individual will overcome his peculiar difficulties and rise 
at once to new levels of abiHty. 

The second point to be noted is that each type of 

^See Chapter VIII, page 357, 



l82 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 






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ARITHMETIC 



183 



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i84 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

element that enters into the end product is itself a 
distinct ability. Inferences from one test to another 
must be made with extreme caution. The organization 
of individual minds varies so greatly that one dare not 
say, before an actual test has been given, that because 
a child makes a high score in such examples as 3768 
multiplied by 74, he will, therefore, make a high score 
in a test composed of such simple elements as 8 multi- 
plied by 4, 5 multiplied by 7, 3 multipHed by 6. 

For instance, the three Cleveland tests used at Gary 
consisted of examples of the following t37pes. 

ABC 

8 6 3,498 3,498 

4 7 7 47 



Type A involves only knowledge of the combinations. 
Type B requires also ability to carry, while type C covers 
all the elements listed previously. While the median 
eighth grade score in Test A is 14 answers per half minute 
with an accuracy of 93 per cent., the individual abihties 
range from 7 answers per half minute with an accuracy 
of 100 per cent, to 22 answers per half minute with an 
accuracy of 100 per cent. (Table XLII, page 182). It 
would seem on first thought that when one of two children 
has three times the knowledge of the multiplication tables 
that the other possesses he must have correspondingly 
greater ability to multiply in long division examples. The 
results show, however, that it is the child with the least 



ARITHMETIC 185 

ability in the tables that makes the highest scores in the 
complex test. Many evidences of such personal idiosyn- 
crasies will be noted. To what extent chance individual 
variation is the cause of the apparent discrepancies 
in the particular results quoted is not known, but from 
personal experience in teaching such children the writer 
is ready to vouch for the existence of such conditions. 

No valid conclusion may be drawn from a few selected 
cases, but the coefficients of correspondence between 
these tests computed on the basis of the scores of 42 
eighth grade children present for all tests tend to 
show that there is less correspondence between the 
simple and complex tests (about 70 per cent.)^ than 
between the various trials of the complex tests (about 
85 per cent.) as far as rate of work is concerned, while for 
accuracy the correspondence is low in all tests (about 
50 per cent.) (Table XLIII, page 187). 

In spite of this lack of correspondence between individ- 
ual scores, the class scores of the identical tests agree 
almost exactly. The median rate for the eighth grade 
scores was 8 examples attempted for both tests, while 
the median accuracy in the one class was 74 per cent, 
and in the other, 75 per cent. Similar results are usually 
obtained whenever a series of tests of the same type of 
ability, but of graded complexity, are used together. Under 
the circumstances, it is safest to regard each test as meas- 
uring a separate ability, and to make no inferences from 
one test to another, except on the basis of actual results. 

^See Chapter XI of Appendix A, page 475. 



i86 THE GARY SCHOOLS 



COMPUTATION OF MEDIANS 



The methods of tabulation and of computing medians 
need explanation. The form of record sheet for the 
Series B tests was the standard record sheet designed for 
the tests and in general use throughout the country. 
The method of computing medians was the approximate 
method also in general use in these tests. But because 
of the low scores made by the Gary children, this method 
does not always yield exact results. The differences, 
where they occur, however, are in the main favorable to 
the Gary children, tending to raise their scores above the 
true level. 

An illustration will make this plain. In Figure 3 2 , page 
189, are shown two forms of tabulation sheet. The one 
at the left of the figure is the standard sheet, although 
not arranged in the conventional manner. The sheet is 
designed to show the relation between rate of work 
and accuracy, and to enable the accuracy to be found 
readily without unnecessary computation. 

The rate scores are shown along the left of the sheet, 
and the total distribution for rate of work in the column 
at the extreme right. This distribution is not distorted 
in any way, and from it the true median may be found. 

The actual scores made by a child are in terms of 
examples tried and examples right, as 6 tried and 5 
right. Such scores, however, should be described in 
terms of rate and accuracy of work. Rate is, of course, 
the number of examples finished per unit of time, or, 



ARITHMETIC 



187 



TABLE XLIII 

RE1ATI0^ Between Results from Different Divisions of 

Cleveland Arithmetic Tests 

Multiplication (Sets C, G and L). Based upon Scores of Eighth 
Grade. Total number of cases, 42. Also relation of Scores in Test 
C (Set L, Cleveland Arithmetic Test) to Tests D and E. 

D and E are two trials of the same test as C, except that the time 
allowance is six minutes instead of three, and that the tests were given 
at a different time and as part of the Series B tests. 



CLEVELAND 
ARITHMETIC 


MEDIAN 


MEDIAN 
DEVIATION 


TOTAL RANGE 


TEST 


RATE 


ACctnRAcry 


RATE 


ACCURACY 


RATE 


ACCURACY 


A 
B 
C 
D 
E 


14 

6 
5 

8 
8 


93.5 
86.0 
63.5 
74.0 
75.0 


3 
1 
1 
2 
1 


6.5 
14.0 
19.5 
15.0 
14.0 


7-22 
3-8 
1- 7 
2-12 
2-13 


75-100 

33-100 

0-100 

0-100 

0-100 



Percentage of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Position 
More Than One Unit, or One Half a Unit of Variability 





rate 


accuracy 


COMPARISON 










I UNIT 


§ UNIT 


I UNIT 


i uNrr 


Test A with B 


71 


40 


50 


29 


" A " C 


67 


36 


60 


21 


" B " C 


98 


43 


50 


19 


" C " D 


86 


62 


40 


26 


" C " E 


81 


29 


38 


14 


" D " E 


76 


50 


65 


24 



This table is to be read as follows: If the relation of the scores of in- 
dividual children in number of examples attempted in Test A to the 
median number made by the class as a whole be compared with the 
relation of the same individual scores in Test B to the median number 
of examples made by the class as a whole, 71 per cent, of the children 
will be found to have maintained the same relative position in the two 
sets of scores within one unit of variability. That is, within three 
examples in Test A, or one example in Test B. 



i88 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

more simply, the number of examples finished, since all 
the grades have the same time allowance. The accuracy 
is the relation of the number of examples right to the 
number of examples tried, expressed as a rate per cent. 
To avoid the computation necessary to find the accu- 
racy in each case, the record sheet is divided into 
vertical columns, each corresponding to a given range 
of accuracy. To enable the scores to be entered directly 
on the record sheet without the necessity of this com- 
putation, the small figures under the rate score show 
for each rate the accuracy column in which the given 
right score would fall. Thus, to enter the score 6 
examples tried and 5 right, the tabulator would look 
up at the rate column until 6 was found, then move 
horizontally across the "six" row until 5 was found. 
One tally would then be marked in this rectangle, and 
a glance at the top of the column would show that the 
accuracy was from 80 per cent, to 89 per cent., average 
85 per cent. 

The accuracies thus found are only approximate, but 
for all columns except the lowest the result will never 
differ from the true accuracy by more than 5 per cent, 
at the most. In the illustration above the difference 
is 2 per cent. (85-83). On the average, the difference 
will be much less than this amount, and will as often 
be positive as negative. This statement does not apply 
to the last column where the variation in accuracy may 
amount to 25 per cent., although usually it is less than 
this amount. However, as it makes little difference in 



ARITHMETIC 



189 



53 



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igo THE GARY SCHOOLS 

meaning whether an accuracy score is 37 per cent, or 
12 per cent., when both are so low as to be of no 
practical value, the errors in this part of the scale are not 
serious. 

The source of the error lies in the fact that scores of 
widely different values are grouped together. If the 
reader will refer to Figure 32, he will see that three 
children who made scores of 6 examples tried have 
scores for examples right which bring them into the lowest 
accuracy column. These scores may be either 2, i, or o 
examples right, the record sheet does not discriminate 
between them. On the average, the scores will be i 
and the accuracy 16 per cent., but if in a particular case 
they happen to be either 2 or o the actual accuracy will 
be either ^^ per cent, or o. 

In the case of the Gary scores, the effect of such lack 
of discrimination is to raise the accuracy scores. If the 
conventional distribution of the scores for examples 
right is made as shown in the tabulation in the table on 
the right of Figure 32, the median score for examples 
right will be 1.7 examples. The class accuracy based 
upon the median score of five examples attempted would 
accordingly be 34 per cent, instead of 52 per cent., as 
shown by the form of tabulation used. Such large differ- 
ences, however, occur infrequently. To check these 
results, the scores of all fourth and eighth grade classes 
were tabulated both ways. 

For instance, in addition, in 79 per cent, of the cases 
the differences are either zero, or show that the accuracy 



ARITHMETIC 
TABLE XLIV 



191 



DrFFEEENCES EST THE ACCURACIES OF FoURTH AND EIGHTH GrADE 

Classes^ 





NUMBER OF TIMES 


TOTAL 

CASES 


SUM OF 
DIFFER- 
ENCES 


AVERAGE 


OPERATIONS 


STANDARD 
LAiGER 


RIGHT 
LARGEK 


DIFFER- 
ENCES 


Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication. . . 
Division 


26 

27 
24 
23 


7 
6 
8 
6 


33 
33 

32 
29 


165 
242 
149 
183 


5.0 
7.3 
4.7 
6.3 


Total 


100 


27 


127 


739 


5.8 



»As tabulated in the Standard Record Sheet and as computed from a tabulation of 
scores for examples right. 

This table is to be read as follows: S3 class scores as to accuracy 
in addition were computed in two ways. One, using the standard 
form of record sheet shown in Figure 32, and the other, tabulating 
the number of examples correctly worked and computing the accuracy 
from the median number of examples right compared with the median 
number of examples attempted. In 26 cases the first method yielded • 
larger results; in 7 cases the second method yielded larger results. The 
sum of the 33 differences in scores, without respect to sign, is 165 per 
cent., the average difference, 5 per cent. The average difference for 
127 cases is 5.8 per cent.; that is, four times out of five the standard 
method jdelds scores which are, on the average, 6 per cent, higher 
than they would have been had they been computed from the number 
of examples worked correctly. 

as determined by the standard record sheet is higher than 
when determined from the nmnber of examples right, 
(Table XLIV, page 191). The average amount of this 
difference is 6 per cent. The accuracy scores in the 
tables of this report, therefore, are either the true scores 
or scores too high by an amount which, on the average, 
will be 6 per cent. 



192 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ARITHMETIC 



193 



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194 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

It may be contended that the median accuracy should 
have been computed from the accuracy of the individual 
papers. That this is better is conceded, but the time 
cost is prohibitive, and the advantage small. In the case 
of the class shown in Figure 32, page 189, for instance, the 
median class accuracy computed from the individual 
accuracies is 50 per cent, as compared with 52 per cent, 
computed from the standard record sheet and 34 per 
cent, computed from the median number of examples 
right. When the median accuracy does not fall much 
below 50 per cent, the standard method is much to 
be preferred because it preserves the scores in their 
fundamental relationships, and the results will differ 
very little, if at all, from those obtained in the longer, 
but more accurate method. Moreover, to be comparable 
with the results from other cities, the Gary results must 
have been obtained by the same methods. For these 
reasons the standard method was used at Gary in both 
the Series B and the Cleveland Tests. In the case of 
the Cleveland Tests, however, to make comparisons 
possible, it was necessary to tabulate all classes in both 
ways. 

RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS 

As the Series B tests were given twice, the data afford 
a basis for the discussion of the rehability of a single test. 
For instance, the difference in the scores of the 13 classes 
in the Jefferson School which were tested twice with 
each of the four tests, 52 differences in all, is, for the most 



ARITHMETIC 



195 



FlGXTKE 33 

Differences in Class Scores nsr Jefferson School for Two 
Trl'Uls of Series B^ 



DIFFERENCES IN CLASS SCORES -Two TRIALS 
RATE 




ADDITION 




-IS 

■ -\& 



MULTIPLICATION 



ARITHMETIC TESTS,StRIESB 
— ... ACCURACY 




SUBTRACTION 




DIVISION 



\y 12 12 II 10 10 15 13 Id ir ir 14- is ? '^ i^ n lo lo is n i<>.i7 u \\ is 

CIAS5 NUMBERS- J£ff£R50N5CH00L 

Each quarter of the diagram is a graph of the results for one operation. 

The scale along the base of the figures shows the numbers of the classes. 
In each diagram the straight line marked O represents the score made in 
the first trial. The scale along the left hand vertical axis shows the 
number of examples the rate score in the second trial is greater or less 
than the corresponding score in the first trial. The scale along the right 
hand vertical axis shows the number of per cent, the accuracy score in 
the second trial is greater or less than the corresponding score in 
the first trial. The solid line represents differences in rate. The dotted 
line represents differences in accuracy. 

It should be noted (i) that there are no consistent differences in any of 
the diagrams, (2) that a gain in rate is often accompanied by a loss in 
accuracy, and vice versa, indicating that the changes in score are merely 
fluctuations in the methods of work, (3) that the differences are gross dif- 
ferences caused by changes in class membership, of changes in ability due to 
training, or changes caused by any other factors that maybe operating. 

^The tests were given five weeks apart. 



196 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 33 — Continued 

In classes 9, 10, 11, and 12 in multiplication, the curves probably indi- 
cate growth due to training, but throughout the remainder of the dia- 
grams there is little evidence of either growth or of consistent differences 
in difficulty between the two editions of the tests. 

part, one example or less in the number of examples at- 
tempted and 10 per cent, or less in accuracy. Only 
about one difference in five will exceed these limits 
(Table XLV, page 192), and 55 out of 102 differences are 
positive. That is, the scores tend to be shghtly higher 
on the second trial. 

A careful study of these data, however, shows the 
variations are of two types. In some of the classes 
changes in rate and accuracy are in opposite directions, 
in others the two are in the same direction, and in still 
others there is practically no change (Figure ;^s)' The 
results show plainly that a number of different factors 
are at work. 

A factor that might cause change in scores is a change 
in difficulty from test to test. In the first trial, Form 
3 of the Series B test was used, while in the second trial 
Form 4 was used. Form 4 is constructed to be of equal 
difficulty with Form 3 on an objective basis; that is, the 
same combinations were employed throughout, and, as 
nearly as possible, in the same arrangement. The varia- 
tion in difficulty from one form to the other should not 
be large, but it is quite impossible to check the relative 
difficulty of the tests except by very carefully conducted 
experiments. -^ 



ARITHMETIC 197 

In the results shown in the previous table it will be 
seen that the classroom scores do not differ in any- 
characteristic way. Sometimes the scores from Form 3 
are larger than those from Form 4; sometimes they are 
smaller. These are indications that the differences are 
not caused by any marked differences in the difficulty 
of the tests themselves. As a further check upon the 
differences from test to test, the number of times each 
example was missed in Trial i and Trial 2 is tabulated. 
Some of the examples of Form 4 proved to be missed by a 
smaller number of children than in Form 3, and the others 
by a larger number, depending upon the operation 
(Table XL VI, page 198). The average difference per 
example was 2.6 per cent. In 60 per cent, of the cases the 
differences were positive. 

There are also evidences of differences in difficulty 
from examples to example. It must be remembered, 
however, that the children who complete the various 
examples are a different group, as only the most able 
children reach the later examples (Table XL VII, page 200) . 
The results show that the units of which the tests are 
composed are fairly equal as measured by even the small 
number of scores at Gary and that the differences from 
test to test are not very great. Those who feel inclined 
to question the equality of the imits of which the tests 
are composed, or the equahty of Forms 3 and 4, should 
remember first that each group of four examples^ of the 
addition tests caU for the use of the same combinations, 
^The number is different for each operation. 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ARITHMETIC 201 

Table XL VII — Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: Example i, multiplication test, 
Form 3, was missed by 30 per cent, of the ninth grade children, by 24 
per cent, of a group of 2)3 ninth grade children who finished the entire 
ten examples, by 47 per cent, of a group of 36 loth to 12th grade children, 
by 73 per cent, of a group of fifth grade children. In other words, the 
table supplies four determinations of relative difficulty of the first four 
examples, based upon the performances of groups of children of different 
abilities. It should be noted that there are marked variations in the rela- 
tive difficulty of the different examples as determined by the different 
groups. Thus, example 3, Form 3, is missed in the ninth grade by less 
than half as many children as example i, but in the group of 33 ninth 
grade children who completed 10 examples the numbers of children 
missing the ist and 3rd examples are equal. Similarly, for Form 4, the 
3rd example is harder than the ist example, according to the results of 
the first group, nearly equal according to the results of the second group, 
easier according to the results of the third group, and harder according 
to the results of the fourth group. In other words, the determination 
of relative difficulty of units of small groups of children within any one 
school system does not jdeld consistent results. 

SO that the four examples taken together make one unit; 
second, that Form 4 is made directly from Form 3 so 
that any child taking one form and then the other is 
called upon to do exactly the same work (Figure 34, page 
202) ; and, third, that the data in the table are too few to 
eliminate the effects of chance and individual variation. 
Moreover, even the Gary class results previously dis- 
cussed show that the variations in class scores from one 
form to another are relatively insignificant. Under the 
circumstances, the discussion above shows that in spite 
of all the factors operating to produce variation, the two 
tests are equal within about 5 per cent, or less. 
One of the most important factors causing a difference 



202 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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207 



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2o8 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

in score is the difference in the reaction of the children 
to the test situation. The first time the test is taken 
most individuals tend to hold themselves in restraint. 
They proceed cautiously, on the lookout for difficulties. 
On the second trial, however, when they know what to 
expect, they work more freely. The result is an in- 
creased rate and decreased accuracy.^ 

Many illustrations, both of increase in rate and de- 
crease in accuracy, and increase in accuracy and decrease 
in rate were found. (Tables XLV and XLVIII.) All 
such differences will be said to be caused by a change 
in method of work. The amount of change in rate 
necessary to produce a given change in accuracy is, 
however, not known and apparently varies with the 
different classes and different individuals. Consequently 
in all cases of change of method it is impossible to tell 
whether or not there has been any real change of abiHty 
in the interval between tests. 

A third factor which undoubtedly influences many 
scores is the change in class membership. Attention 
has already been called to the fact that attendance at 
Gary is exceedingly variable, and in the results previously 
given (Table XLV, page 192) no account has been taken 
of changes in membership. An analysis was made of the 
scores of the children from a class whose scores show a large 
loss to determine the effect of individual variation (Table 
XLVIII, page 204) . There were 3 children present at the 
first trial who were absent on the second, 10 children pres- 

^See X of Appendix A, page 452. 



ARITHMETIC 209 

ent the second trial who were not present the first trial. 
Of the 22 children present at both trials, the scores of 5 
show a real gain, some of them in both rate and accuracy, 
1 1 individuals show very Httle change, or else a change in 
method. That is, in this class, the large loss in accuracy is 
due almost entirely to the change of method of work, for 
the children present at both trials have increased their rate 
score one example, and lost in accuracy 24- per cent. 
This efifect, however, is somewhat masked in the general 
class scores by the fact that children present at the first 
trial were less able than the average of the class, and 
tended to reduce the first class score. 

A similar analysis was made for a class in which there 
was a larger gain in accuracy (Table XLIX, page 206). 
The results show that this gain was due partly to seven 
children who show a real gain, and partly to the fact that 
a number of children worked more slowly in the second 
test with increased accuracy, that is, to eight children 
who show an apparent gain in accuracy due to change 
in method. Analysis of random selections of other classes 
showing similar large differences gave similar results. 
Nothing was found to indicate that there were any real 
differences in difficulty between the two addition tests. 

The fourth factor tending to produce change in score is 
school training. This is particularly true in the B eve- 
ridge school in which systematic drill work was observed 
following the first test. In most of the classes, however, 
there is no evidence that any great amount of change 
of score can be attributed to such cause. Most of the 



2IO THE GARY SCHOOLS 

variations shown in the table are due either to chance 
variations or to changes in method. 

A tabulation of all the differences in the class scores in 
the two trials of the Series B tests in all schools showed 
(Table L, page 211) that about 10 per cent, of the classes 
made exactly the same score in the two tests, 78 per cent, 
of the classes made the same score in rate within one 
example, 62 per cent, made the same score in accuracy 
within 10 per cent. As the scores of the Gary children 
of the eighth grade average 8 examples, a change of 
one example worked correctly would mean a change in 
accuracy, if the rate scores were constant, of 12 per cent., 
so that about three fourths of the class scores do not 
vary more than one example in their rate or accuracy. 
The median of 211 differences between the class scores 
of the first and second trials of the tests is about one half 
an example in rate and 7.6 per cent, in accuracy. 

Of these differences, the positive differences have a 
ratio to the negative differences of about 2:1, indicating 
the general tendency of the classes to make a higher score 
on the second test. This is undoubtedly due to the 
practice effects of repeating the test, as has already been 
indicated. 

The reliability of the rate scores of a single test is 
high — about 90 per cent.^ That is, only about 10 per 
cent, of the children will be misrepresented by their rate 
scores in any one test. In accuracy, however, variations 

^Pearson's coefScient of reliability, 42 eighth grade children, rate 
scores addition, Trials 1 and 2, were + -90, P. E. ± .02. 



ARITHMETIC 211 

TABLE L 

Vakiation in Class Scores in Two Trials of Series B — Four 
Operations Combined^ 



AMOUNT OF variation^ 


FREQUENCY, RATE 


FREQUENCY, 
ACCURACY 


^ 


NUMBER 


% 


NUMBER 


% 





19 


10 


24 


12 


1-4 


81 


38 


54 


25 


5-9 


64 


30 


54 


25 


10-14 


30 


14 


44 


21 


15-19 


8 


4 


19 


9 


20-24 


9 


4 


16 


8 


Total 


2113 


100 


211* 


100 


Median 


.55 Examples 


7.6% 



^Differences in rate and accuracy are distributed for grades 4-ia. 
2For rate of work the amount of variation represents tenths of an example. For ac- 
curacy the amount of variation represents per cent, of accuracy. 
'73 scores were lower on second trial, 119 higher. 
*63 scores were lower on second trial, 124 higher. 

This table is to be read as follows: Of 211 repeated tests 19, or 10 
per cent, of the whole made exactly the same median score in rate in 
both trials: 24, or 12 per cent, made exactly the same median score in 
accuracy. Half the classes varied .55 of an example or less in rate, 
and 7.6 per cent, or less in accuracy. 



arise much more readily and the rehabih'ty of the tests 
is low. This is shown clearly by the coefficients of corre- 
spondence (Table LI, page 213). About three fourths of 
the children will maintain their relative positions in the 
distribution of rate scores through the two trials, and 
about 40 per cent, of the children in accuracy.^ 

^Pearson's coefficient of reliability, 42 eighth grade children, accuracy 
scores multiplication. Trials i and 2, was + .12, P. E. ± .09, 



212 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that educational 
measurements differ from measurements in the physical 
sciences chiefly in the fact that the quantities measured 
in education vary enormously with slight changes in 
conditions. The length of a metal rod is changed so 
little by temperature, pressure, and other factors that 
we come to think of the length as a quantity independent 
of the conditions. Abihty to add correctly, on the other 
hand, is so dependent upon the conditions under which 
the adding is done that it can scarcely be said to exist 
independently of them. In other words, as has been 
repeatedly pointed out, a test does not measure abihty, 
it merely registers performance under the given condi- 
tions. 

The conditions revealed by the tests are not created 
by them. Whenever two separate measurements by 
the same test are possible, a greater range of individual 
variation than one would expect is always revealed. 
Many tests, however, cannot be repeated, and for very 
few are there available second editions of equal value 
to the first. The conclusion to be drawn from the re- 
peated tests is, of course, that a series of tests is necessary 
to determine with any certainty the abihty of an in- 
dividual, but that variations in individual achievement 
take place in accordance with such fixed laws that class 
scores based on the scores of groups of children are very 
rehable. In other words, the scores made by the Gary 
children in the arithmetic tests are proved, by the repeti- 
tion of the tests, to represent actual conditions. The 



ARITHMETIC 
TABLE LI 

CORRESPONDENCK BETWEEN RESULTS OF TwO TrIAXS OF 

Series B^ 



213 





■MTDIAN 


MEDIAN 
DEVIATION 


TOTAL RANGE 




RATE 


ACCY. 


RATE 


ACCY. 


RATE 


ACCY. 


Addition, 1st 

Addition, 2nd 

Subtraction, 1st 

Subtraction, 2nd 

Multiplication, 1st 

Multiplication, 2nd. . . . 

Division, 1st 

Division, 2nd 

Multiplication, Cleve- 
land Tests 


8 

7.5 
9 
9 

8 
8 
7 
7 

5 


61 
57 

83 
79 

74 
75 
83 
84.5 

63.5 


2 

1.5 

1 
1 
2 
1 

1 
1 

1 


14 
14 
8 
12 
15 
14 
17 
13.5 

19.5 


4-15 
3-15 
6-16 
5-17 
2-12 
2-13 
1-13 
3-14 

1-7 


0-100 
0-100 

14-100 
0-100 
0-100 
0-100 
0-100 

20-100 

0-100 



'Based on scores of 42 eighth grade pupils, tested at intervals of four weeks. 

Percentage of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Relative 
Position More Than One (or One Half) 
Uott of Variability 



SERIES B 


rate 


ACCURACY 


COMPARISON TRIAL I WITH 2 


I UNIT 


i xrariT 


1 UNIT 


J UNIT 


Addition 


78 


55 


36 


21 


Subtraction 


78 


36 


45 


29 


Multiplication 


76 


50 


55 


24 


Division 


60 


24 


31 


12 


Multiplication Trial 1 Series B 










with Cleveland 


86 


62 


40 


26 


Multiplication Trial 2 Series B 










with Cleveland 


81 


29 


38 


14 



This table is to be read as follows: If in the first trial of the addition 
test, the relations of the scores of individual children to the score of 
the class as a whole be compared with similar data based upon the 
scores of the same individual in the second trial, 78 per cent, of the 
children wiU be found to have maintained the same relative position 
in the two sets of rate scores, and 36 per cent, in the two sets of ac- 
curacy scores, within one unit of variability. That is, within 2 ex- 
amples for rate, and within 14 per cent, for accuracy. 



214 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

scores made by the Gary children in all the tests of me- 
chanical skills agree in showing that the Gary children 
work slowly and very inaccurately. 

EFFECT OF TEST CONDITIONS 

The claim is sometimes made that such poor work in 
the tests is due largely to the fact that the children are 
working under artificial conditions; that if occasion were 
to arise for the use of these same skills in the achievement 
of some purpose which seemed worthy of effort, the chil- 
dren would respond to the motivated situation in a man- 
ner which would prove their ability to cope with it. 

This statement is both true and untrue. It is true 
that a slow, inaccurate worker will, under the spur of 
sufficient incentive, repeat his computations many times 
until he is finally able to arrive at the correct results. 
As has already been pointed out, by far the greater 
number of children tested both at Gary and in other 
school systems would be able to solve correctly every 
example in every test (except certain of the fraction 
tests) if a sufficient incentive should lead them to at- 
tempt such an achievement, and if there were no time 
limit. So far the claim above is based upon fact. The 
part of the statement that is not true is the implication 
that because two groups of children attain the same 
goal their achievements are equal, and the trainings 
which made the achievement possible are of equal value. 
For if the children of one school require less time than 
those of another school to accompHsh the same task, 



ARITHMETIC 215 

they are more skilful. The sole purpose of the arith- 
metic tests given at Gary was to determine the degree of 
skill possessed by the Gary children under the given 
conditions. Such measurements are of value because 
many persons have already determined for themselves 
the degree of skill they think a child of a given age or 
grade should have under the test conditions. The one 
additional point to be noted is that in the judgment of 
the survey staff the test is a suitable measure for the 
type of instruction found in the classrooms at Gary. 
If, therefore, the reader wiU realize that no attempt is 
being made to draw inferences from the results, other 
than in regard to the degree of skill in the mechanical 
operations of arithmetic, the discussions of this chapter 
will serve to show the degree of dependence that may 
legitimately be placed upon the conclusions reached. 



VI. ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

§1. General Results 

LANGUAGE work at Gary is allotted i6 per cent, 
of the total time given to the fundamentals, and 
-^ this corresponds almost exactly to the per cent, 
of time allowed this type of work in the average of 
fifty American cities. The actual number of hours at 
Gary, 798, is somewhat less than the average, 864 hours, 
in the conventional schools, but the difference is so slight 
that one may fairly say work of this tj^^ receives the 
same emphasis at Gary as elsewhere. English composi- 
tion is the one phase of language work which is measurable 
at present. Such surveys as have been made in other 
school systems show that in general the products of school 
training in written composition are far from satisfactory. 
It was felt, however, that here, if anywhere, the training 
peculiar to Gary should produce results. Accordingly, 
a test of ability in English composition was given. 

TESTS 

No attempt was made to measure oral composition, 
and, of the four recognized forms of written composition, 
the testing work was limited to the simplest, narration. 
Children were asked to write a story of some interesting 
or exciting experience^ of their lives. Subjects were 

^The instructions and conditions of the Composition Test given in the 
Denver Survey were followed closely. 

216 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 217 

suggested, but the children were urged to choose for 
themselves, and, for the most part, they did. Children 
wrote freely in the presence of the examiners and were 
given ample time (fifteen to twenty minutes) . The actual 
number of minutes and seconds taken by each child was 
noted, however. 

SCORING 

In all but the lowest grades the children counted the 
number of words written and later these scores were 
verified by the examiners. The papers were also scored 
for quality, for number of errors, and in other ways, 
all such scoring being done by trained men under carefully 
controlled conditions. The quahty of the compositions 
was measured by means of the Hillegas Scale. ^ 

RESULTS 

A typical eighth grade composition is shown in Figure 
35. The handwriting in the sample is a little better 
than the eighth grade median in handwriting (quality 
Ajnres' Scale 45, actual eighth grade median in composi- 
tion test 39, generalized score 42), and the misspell- 
ings are less frequent than for the median spelling 
paper for the eighth grade (spelling coefi&cient of the 
illustration, 8; median eighth grade spelling coefiicient, 
19.7), but in style, subject, structure, and range of vocab- 
ulary it is a representative paper. So far as it is not 



' A discussion of the reliability of measurement of quality in composi- 
tion by the Hillegas Scale will be found in §2, page 247. 



2l8 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 35 

THE GARY PUBUC SCHOOLS 






t.«NGTH 



-SSL"* ASE../;^ GRADE M CLASSM- 




^ AAr^uaJyiAr-^ AArtTAJm t'CiO 



(kUnaM^^ fiJL^-^^ 



A^^Tj^. 




10 



AAut.A'&yt^ ^.Ci^toLt y6Ckoi/{ 



Lf- 



/t^-^l/t^ ^ 



/a 



,.yb4yLiJ' (ji^tr-^ .X-^J dL£f/ajyUr<yy ^ylZii/^^ 




The scores on the Hillegas Scale assigned to this sample by five 
judges are 37, 40, 45, 55 and 65. Median value 45. Median quality of 
eighth grade composition for entire city, 45.8. This sample is, therefore, 
a representative paper. 

Half of the eighth grade children wrote compositions equal to or better 
than this sample, and half compositions equal to or worse than this sample. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



2ig 



Figure 35 — Continued 

Sample A 

(HiLLEGAs Value 45) 
An Exciting experience 

It was a very dark damp outside 
ni^t in the woods, We went 
to sleep after watching the 
storm after we had been 
asleep about three hours we 
were awakened by a queer 
rumbling noise, at first we 
were afraid we talked over 
what we would do if the 
tent blew away. The 
storm was growing worse 
the rain came down in tor- 
rents and came through into 
the tent as a deep mist, we 
were all so wet it was no 
use to try to sleep so we 
warmed our selves over the 
gasoline stove, the storm 
grew worse and Earle went 
out and loosened the guy 
ropes tightening the tent 
down at the same time. 
It seemed an hour before 
he came back when all of a 
sudden we heard a yell from 



we ran out and 
there stood Earle horrified 
because as we looked 
through the trees down the 
beach came a sort of a 
misty red ball tearing up 
everything in front of it. 
It turned toward us but it 
was coming slowly we 
turned and ran into the 
tent put out the stove and 
ran for some bushes be- 
tween some large trees. 
We got there just in time 
because when we dropped 
into the bushes we heard 
a crash and behind us, 
When we looked to see the 
rotten tree beside the tent 
had been torn down and 
unfortunatly fell on the 
tent tearing the canvas and 
breaking the center pole. 
That is the last hurrican 
we ever want to see 



220 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 36 
Sample B 

Part of an Eighth Grade Composition 
(HiLLEGAS Value 30) 



As we went to spent our 
vacation I happen to be 
right near the mountains 
I was glad couse I could go 
and climb just as higch as 
I want to 

So I went with my father 
and mother we went pvery 
hiegh. it was getting cold 



already why I think abouve 
the clouds I want to rich 
the tops but couldnt couse 
there was ice and it was 
so sleapry to goe any 
further so we came back 
when we came down there 
was many more mountains 
and I disided to go on 



Approximately 10 per cent, of the eighth grade compositions were 
as poor as this sample. Approximately half of the fourth grade papers 
were as poor as or worse than this sample. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



Figure 36 — Continued 

Sample C 

Eighth Grade Composition 
(HiLLEGAs Value 60) 



One evening, about nine 
yeafs ago, we left Rochester 
N. Y. for a trip up the St. 
Lawrence River. There 
were four in our party, a 
cousin, Mother, Father, and 
myself. Going up the river 
it was rather rough and it 
being my first experience 
on a boat I was rather sick, 
altho the thot of sleeping 
in a boat all night was a 
most interesting one for me. 

Coming home, the second 
evening we had been on 
the boat, we were all sitting 
on the deck. The sun was 



just setting in the west. 
The reflection on the water 
was made up of goldenpink 
and a little bit of red. The 
water on one side of the 
boat was like glass. On 
the other side it was rip- 
pling just a trifle and the 
reflection seemed to be 
lavender. This was one of 
the most beautiful sights I 
had seen and as young as 
I was I remember it yet. 
I sat and gazed upon the 
water, with my doll in my 
arms, until I fell asleep. 



Approximately 10 per cent, of the eighth grade papers w6re equal to or 
better than this sample. Approximately half of the twelfth grade 
papers were equal to or better than this sample. Approximately 80 per 
cent, of the eighth grade papers would fall between Sample B and 
Sample C. 

representative, the sample is better, not worse, than the 
typical eighth grade product. The specimen therefore pro- 
vides the reader with the opportunity to see for himself the 



2 22 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

degree of merit in English composition which represents 
the outcome of eight years' training in writing English. 

The amomit of progress from the fourth to the twelfth 
grades is from quality 29.9 to 62.2 BQllegas (Table LII) and 
may be observed in the difference between samples "B" 
and " C " in Figure 36, page 220. Sample "B " represents 
the median quahty of the fourth grade papers, and sample 
*'C" the median quality of the twelfth grade papers. 
Approximately 80 per cent, of the eighth grade papers 
fall between these limits; that is, a Httle less than 10 per 
cent, of the eighth grade papers are as poor as, or poorer 
than, sample "B," and no more than 10 per cent, of the 
eighth grade papers are equal to, or exceed, sample "C." 

A study of the complete distribution of the scores 
assigned to the papers in the Gary composition test show 
that of the entire group of 1429 children tested, but 29 
have papers of quality 70 or better,^ and all but one of 
these are found in the high school grades (Table LIII, 
page 224). This means that very few of the children 
have much power in the selection of subject matter, the 
organization of material, or the choice of words. 

Composition ability changes in rate in a uniform way 
up to the ninth grade, but there is Uttle further progress. 
In quality there is but 3 points difference (32.8-29.9) 

^Reference to the analysis of the composition scale, page 245, and to 
the samples in Appendix A, page 416, will show that quality 70 is the 
lowest quality that represents a desirable end product. It is only fair to 
Gary to add that standards based on the actual achievements of children 
fall far below 70. Trabue eighth grade standard, 50. Nineteen per cent. 
of the 1429 pupils equaled or exceeded quahty 50. If eighth and higher 
grades only are considered the percentage 50 or better would be 54%. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



223 



TABLE LII 
Quality of Illustrative Samples — English Composition 



SAMPLE 


source: 

SCHOOL 


GRADE 


MEDIAN QUALITY 

ON HILLEGAS 

SCALE 

(5 judges) 


QUALITY EQUALED 
OR EXCEEDED BY 


B 

A 

c 


Froebel 

Emerson 

Jefferson 


8th 
8th 
8th 


30, Av. Dev. 3.6 
45, Av. Dev. 8.6 
60, Av. Dev. 7.6 


50% of 4th grade 
50% of 8th grade 
50% of 12th grade 



Essential Comparisons of the Range in Ability in English 
Composition in Terms of Hillegas Units 



grade 

Highest 10% 

Highest 30% 

Median 

Lowest 30% 

Lowest 10% 



39.1 
34.4 
29.9 
24.9 
18.8 



60.0 
50.5 

45.8 
41.4 
34.2 



12 



70.0 
65.9 
62.2 
53.5 
48.3 



The table is to be read as follows: Sample B was written by an 
eighth grade child in the Froebel School. It is rated as value 30 on the 
Hillegas Scale (average deviation of five judgments, 3.6 points). Its 
quality is equaled or exceeded by 50 per cent, of the fourth grade 
papers. 

The 10 per cent, of the children making the highest scores in the 
fourth grade were rated 39.1 Hillegas or better; in the eighth grade, 
60.0 Hillegas or better; in the twelfth grade, 70.0 Hillegas or better. 



224 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ENGLISH COMPOSITION 225 

Figure 37 
Development in Composition 



60 


IT »« 




fw / 


50-- 


A / 


40- 


<^ .••' 




C0HP051T10N. ^^^ .-' REPRODUCTION 


30- 


4 ' 


20- 


ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
DEVELOPMENT CURVE 


■ 


SPEED-QUALITY 


10- 




■ 


RATE 








o 10 20 

Scale along the base of the figure — rate in number of words written per 
minute. Scale along the vertical axis — quality on the Hillegas Scale. 
Solid line — composition; dotted line — reproduction of simple story after 
one reading. Small circles on composition curve indicate position of 
grade scores in both rate and quality. The small figures near circles 
show grades. The reproduction curve is based upon the actual rates of 
reproduction and the quality of the composition test. The eighth grade 
quality of reproduction was judged to be equal to that of composition, 
but the dotted line, as a whole, represents a theoretical line. The curve 
was drawn to make evident the actual difference in rate of writing be- 
tween reproduction and composition. The difference increases from 
grade to grade and the curves show that quality in the Gary schools is 
produced at the expense of rate. 

Note that the light dotted hne which represents the actual scores for 
development of ability in English composition begins to rise rapidly in 
the sixth grade, and that the growth during high school years is almost 



226 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 37 — Continued 

entirely in quality. To conform to results in conventional schools the 
composition curve should have the same general form as the curve for 
reproduction and fall half way between the two curves in the figure. 

between the fourth and sixth grade, but the change 
from the sixth to the eighth grade is 13 points. The 
eighth grade median score is nearly 46 Hillegas. The 
ninth grade is but sUghtly higher, but the tenth and elev- 
enth grade scores raise the level 18 points. The twelfth 
grade score is lower than that of the eleventh grade. 
That is, of the 34.3 points of difference in quality between 
the fourth and eleventh grades, 30.2 points gain is made 
in four of the grades. The growth in high school grades 
is almost wholly in quality. (Tables LIII, LIV, pages 
224, 227, Figure 37, page 225). 

Teachers of EngUsh hold that in compositions there 
should be increasing freedom from error from grade to 
grade, and increasing power both to choose the words 
best adapted to the expression of a given thought and to 
organize the words chosen into coherent discourse. Ac- 
cordingly, the eighth grade papers were subjected to a 
series of analyses to determine the number and character 
of the various errors made. Papers were marked for 
errors in capitalization, punctuation, spelling and gram- 
mar and were also analyzed as to range of vocabulary. 

On the average, a Gary eighth grade child makes .8 
of an error in capitalization, 1.8 errors in punctuation, 
and 3.9 errors in grammar, or a total of 6.4 errors in writ- 
ing an original composition of 214 words (Table LV, page 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



227 



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228 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ERROR PER 

PUPIL IN 

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ERROR PER 

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Capitalization 

Punctuation 

Grammar 


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Capitalization 

Capitalization 

Punctuation 

Punctuation 

Grammar 

Grammar 


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Capitalization 

Capitalization 

Punctuation 

Punctuation 

Grammar 

Grammar 


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ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



229 



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0<y.S C w '^ 



I u 



o 

^H«o,rtc3P''Hiu 
O^ O*! g^ O 2 

So J3 t« 4) S Ir! 



!t|j3 






u o 






^ ^ 



a-^ 









143 00 



.2 D S 2 a "^ «2 i3 
'cJ.ti Mi2 »^ ?n iJ'43j2 

-^ o a S-r) ss §« 



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•§.£P<u §^^grS 3 



230 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

228). ■ When it is remembered that the errors selected 
for scoring include gross errors only, it will be seen that 
the Gary product in its mechanical aspects is not very 
satisfactory. 

An important phase of school training is the develop- 
ment of an adequate vocabulary. Fifty-three per cent, 
of the different words and 86 per cent, of the running 
words used by the eighth grade children in Gary are classi- 
fied by Jones as second grade words (Table LVI, page 231, 
Figure 38, page 232). The Gary results include every 
word used in the 127 eighth grade compositions analyzed, 
while the Jones vocabulary includes only words used by 
at least 2 j>er cent, of the children of a given grade. If the 
Gary vocabularies had been restricted to different words 
used at least three times, the percentage of the second 
grade words would have been seventy-five.^ 

Again a careful study of the vocabulary^ fails to show 
any clear effect of the special training at Gary. For 
instance, the word "carbon" is used three times, but a 
reading of the composition in which it occurs shows that 

^Comparative data from conventional schools are not available. How- 
ever, a tabulation of a random sampling of all the words used in the 
eighth grade compositions gave 54 per cent, of the words five letters or 
less in length. A similar random sampling of Jones' second grade words 
gave 45 per cent, five letters or less in length. That is, the Gary vocab- 
ulary contained a larger proportion of the simpler, smaller words. See 
also page 414. 

' *In Appendix A, VII, page 434, will be found a list of all the eighth 
grade words which are not either proper nouns, words in Jones' List, or 
derivations of those words. That is, it contains all words which might 
in any way be peculiar to Gary. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



231 






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232 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



the word was acquired at the time the boy was in a booth 
with his brother, a moving-picture operator. ("The 
red hot carbon fell out of the lantern and set jSre to the 
film.") Similarly, in one case, "auditorium" refers 



Figure 38 

Vocabulary of Eighth Grade Compositions Based on Jones' 
Vocabulary Lists 

VOC AB U LARY ~ EIGHTH GRADE COMPOSITION'S 

TOTAL AREA = g506 DIFFERENT WORDS FROM 27,610 



133 9 DIFrER£NfT W-ORD^ 
RATED AS SECOND 
GRADE WORDS^BY 
J0NE5 



160 :3BP GRADE WORDS 



148 4^-^ GRADE WORDS'' 



93 5' GRADE 



■» 58 6^" GRADE 



81 7"GRADE- 



nJI a^'^GRADE 



386 unlisted: WORD? 



£1 



l40Df3CARDED 



WORDS 



not to school work, but to the name of a theatre in Chi- 
cago; "pottery" to Indian pottery seen on a trip to New 
Mexico. One of the few possible exceptions is a set of 
words, "mummy, art, beetles," etc., which are used in 
describing a trip to the Art Museum in Chicago. The 
trip was taken with nine other boys from Gary and may 
have grown out of school work, although no reference is 
made to teacher or school. ' As far as it is possible to 
judge, the various words which do not appear in Jones 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 233 

TABLE LVII 
Composition Subjects — Eighth Grade Classes 

Total number of papers 127 

Analysis A 
relative to life of child 

Events in the life of the writer (exciting) 49 

Descriptions of scenes or accounts of experiences (not exciting). .. 30 

Accounts of incidents observed in the life of others (exciting). ... 19 

Description of trips 13 

Accounts of experiences related by others (not seen) 11 

Dreams, ghost stories, and imaginary events 4 

Experiment in physics 1 

Total 127 
Analysis B 
types of experiences 

Accidents, runaways, and collisions 23 

Experiences, fishing, swimming, walking, and skating 22 

Trips 20 

By boat 10 
" rail 6 
" auto 4 

Hikes in woods or country 12 

Storms 18 

Rain 11 
Snow 5 
HaU 2 

Fires 6 

Errands 5 

Miscellaneous j 21 

127 
Analysis C 
source 

Farm, country, or woods 30 

City 24 

Rivers, lakes, or ocean 23 

A trip of some kind 15 

Home 13 

School 7 

On way home after school 7 

Miscellaneous 9 

127 



234 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

may as well have been acquired from actual life experi- 
ences as from school activities. 

The incidents chosen as subjects by the 127 children 
tested in the eighth grade classes were carefully studied 
and tabulated (Table LVII, page 233). The children 
followed instructions and wrote, for the most part, about 
simple, childish interests in striking occurrences of daily 
life. There is Uttle in them to show that the interpreta- 
tion placed upon these experiences by the children has 
been influenced in any way by school training. 

SCHOOL TO SCHOOL COMPARISON 

In making comparisons from school to school, marked 
differences were found. Of the 13 classes tested in 
the Jefferson School 2 had composition scores markedly 
above the city scores and one below. Of the 12 classes 
in the Beveridge School none was above the city score 
and 7 below (Table LVIII, page 235). Comparisons on 
the basis of composition rate, or rate of reproduc- 
tion, yield results which are very similar. The schools 
in order of rank are: Jefferson, Emerson, Froebel, and 
Beveridge. It is probable, however, that these dif- 
ferences are not in any way due to special program fea- 
tures. If the differences observed were due to the en- 
riched curriculum, the order of schools would probably be: 
Emerson, Froebel, Jefferson, and Beveridge; Froebel 
being put second instead of first to allow for the difficulty 
in language work with the children of foreign born par- 
ents. Under the circumstances, the differences shown 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



235 







236 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



in the table are probably not significant from the point 
of view of this investigation. 



COMPARATIVE DATA 



The question of the value of the Gary product as com- 
pared with similar work in other schools cannot be set- 



TABLE LIX 
Comparative Data for Quality of Composition (Hillegas)' 



•V 

o 


Hi 

O 


II 

t/2 


%1 


fU 

3 

cq 

23 
28 
34 
38 
41 






1^ 




3 iS 
O 1> 
(fi > 

«_ 

23 
26 
38 
48 
56 

52 
50 
59 
63 


U 

29 
28 
41 
40 
53 


1 


4 
5 
6 

7 


29.9 
32.6 
32.8 
39.7 
45.8 

46.9 
56.2 
64.2 
62.2 


35 
40 
45 
50 
55 

60 
65 
69 
72 


26 
31 
36 
41 
46 


29* 
31* 
38* 

44* 
54* 


28 
34 
38 
42 
46 

50 
53 
57 
59 


33 
38 
46 
50 

67 
69 
72 
75 


32 
39 
43 
42 

56 
64 
60 
68 


47 


8 

9 

10 
11 
12 


Fifty foiu' 
High 
Schools 
50 
59 
64 
67 



iSee page 38. 

^Starch's standards are derived from Butte and Salt Lake City. 

*The values of this column are those printed in the Salt Lake City Survey Report. 
It is probable, however, that to make these values comparable with Gary tney should 
be raised 7 points as they were computed in a peculiar manner. See page 247. 

This table should be read as follows: The median fourth grade score 
in quality of composition at Gary was 29.9 Hillegas. Trabue's fourth 
grade standard, 35; Starch standard, 26; fourth grade score at Butte, 23; 
Salt Lake City, 29; Nassau County, 28; Mobile, Alabama, 33; Mobile 
County, 32; South River, N. J., 23; Chatham, N. J., 29. 

The scores of the eighth grade classes were as follows: Froebel, class 
45, 40 Hillegas; class 46, 40. Emerson, class 14, 47.2; class 15, 44.0. 
Jefferson, class 18, 50. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 237 



Figure 39 
Comparative Development 

THE GARY SURVEY 

scbcci__CIXY___T«. No QQ.tlEQ5LlU.0hL 



40- 



30- 




BUTTE 



CBACBACBACBACBACBACBA 

2345 678 9 10 11 2 

GRADES 

The scale along the bottom of the figure represents grades, the scale 
along the vertical axis represents quality by the Hillegas Scale. The 
solid line represents Gary; broken line, Butte; dotted line, Salt Lake 
City. 

The Gary results are better than those from Butte and not so good as 
those from Salt Lake City. The Gary and Salt Lake City curves are the 
same to the fifth grade, but the value of the scores in Salt Lake City 
increases more rapidly than in Gary, so that by the eighth grade the 
Gary scores are about two years behind. Note the increased rate of 
growth in the high school grades. For comments on the reliability of 
scoring by the Hillegas Scale see Section 2 of this Chapter, page 239. 



238 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

tied as definitely as for other subjects, because few com- 
parative data are available, and studies of the reliability 
of scoring by the Hillegas Scale are conflicting. The 
Gary eighth grade score (45.8 Hillegas) is higher than 
the corresponding Butte score (41 Hillegas) and lower 
than those given in the Salt Lake City Survey (54 Hille- 
gas) (Table LIX, page 236, Figure 39, page 237). 

In making the Denver and Grand Rapids surveys the 
Willing Composition Scale was used. The values of this 
scale do not correspond to those of the Hillegas Scale, but 
through the kindness of Mr. Willing all but one of the 
eighth grade classes^ were scored by him personally, so 
that the Gary results might be directly comparable with 
the Denver and Grand Rapids scores. The median qual- 
ity of the Denver eighth grade papers, written on the 
same subject and under the same conditions as the Gary 
papers, was 63.5 ; of the Grand Rapids papers, 65.0; of the 
Gary papers scored by Mr. Willing, 61.3.^ 

It is extremely probable, therefore, that on the basis 
of such comparative data as are available at present they 
should be judged to be about equal to the products of 
composition training in conventional schools.' 



^The fifth one was omitted because of lack of time. 

^The median of the Hillegas scores of the same 97 papers by the Gary 
judges was 46.3 as compared with 45.8 for the entire grade, so the omis- 
eion of the one class did not greatly influence the result. 

^The personal judgment of the author is that this conclusion will not 
stand when more comprehensive comparative data are available. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 239 

§2. Critical Discussion 

The measurement of ability in English composition 
presents a problem of greater dilB&culty than the meas- 
urement of any of the abiKties pre^dously discussed. 
The factors which determine the merit of a composition 
and those which affect the judgment of the scorer are 
many. Little is known about their relative value. The 
ordinary marking of teachers varies enormously, both 
from teacher to teacher, or for any one teacher from day 
to day, and from sample to sample. Also the use of a 
composition scale has been attacked by certain teachers 
of EngHsh. It is important, therefore, that the method 
of marking the papers from the composition test in the 
survey be explained in detail. 

SCALE USED 

AU marks reported are in terms of the Hillegas Scale.^ 
Unfortunately, the purpose and value of the scale have 
been so Httle understood that the use of the scale for 
survey purposes must be justified. It must be admitted 
at once that the scale cannot be used effectively without 
training. The effects of a first reading of the scale are 
Hkely to be irritation and a sense of the impossibility of 
attempting to judge of the quality of a composition by 
reference to other compositions of a totally different char- 
acter. Yet it is easy to show that such judgments are 
not only possible, but are accurately and consistently 



^Teachers College Record, Vol. 13, No. 4, page 21. 



240 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

made, once certain viewpoints and experiences are 
gained. 

The Hillegas Scale provides for marking of composi- 
tions on an absolute basis. That is, a mark given by 
the scale means just one thing, the degree of merit 
possessed by the composition as a composition, and en- 
tirely apart from any consideration of the age or grade of 
the author, the conditions under which it was written, 
or the purpose for which the mark is given. That is, 
50 Hillegas units of composition are comparable in mean- 
ing to 50 inches or units of length, 50 pounds or units of 
weight, or 50 units of any other quantity which may be 
measured in absolute terms. 

The reader unfamiliar with the use of scientific units 
for the measurement of educational products should see 
that the composition scale has for one of its purposes the 
bringing to hght of the very items which teachers' marks 
conceal. The teacher of a fourth grade class recognizes 
a paper as an exceptional paper for the grade and marks 
it, let us say, 95 per cent. The teacher of the eighth 
grade class also assigns a mark of 95 per cent, to a paper 
from her class. Numerically, the two papers are equal; 
yet both teachers would agree that one paper is better 
than the other. The marks have served the teacher's 
purpose, but from the point of view of a survey they 
conceal the most important elements that the survey 
wishes to reveal, i.e., the real quality of the compositions 
and the amount of progress which has been made from 
the fourth to the eighth grades. If, however, the two 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 241 

papers are marked in terms of the scale and one is found 
to be of quality 40, while the other is of quahty 80, it is 
possible to say at once that the one has twice as much 
merit as the other. 

Many persons will admit the desirability of absolute 
marking, but do not believe that the scale can be used 
for such a purpose. It is easy to prove, however, that 
everyone recognizes gross differences in general merit. 
If the reader will scan, superficially or carefully, the two 
samples below (taken from the papers written at Gary) 
he will have no difficulty in recognizing that as samples 
of English composition one represents a more advanced 
stage of development than the other. 

SAMPLE I 

" One the day I was on a wonderful jourray. I travelled 
in the mountains and as I travelled about Two days and 
accident happen to me because I slipped of the rock and 
hurt my foot. And so I went on, and seen a bear behind 
me and I started to run away. And as I ren I fell into 
the water and then the bear disappeared. And so I 
went home very lately. 

"Next morning I was traveling in the different parts. 
When I was about in the middle of the forest" 

SAMPLE 2 

"Ice," called George, a jolly, big, fat negro as he 
entered the yard with his wagon and mules. Today 
the ice wagon, however, was to be the conveyance for a 
picnic party and they were to traverse the beautiful 



342 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

solitary roads in the mountains of North Carolina, There 
was a grand scramble, the picnicers climbed in, seated 
themselves on the hay, laughing and talking until the 
gloominess of the woods and the stony, socalled roads 
attracted their entire attention." 

These two samples, however, constitute a rough scale 
by which any other samples may be measured; for if one 
reads Sample 3 (below) he will have no difficulty in recog- 
nizing that it is intermediate in value between the other 
two. 

SAMPLE 3 

"This is a real experience. It happened at Miller's 
beach in the summer of 19 13. 

"My brother, another young man, and myself went 
out in a row boat. 

"When we had gotten about half a mile from the shore 
my brother dived off of the boat. He came up once and 
went down again, he came up again and went down again 
he came up again and went down again. We waited 
awhile but he did not come up, 

"Our friend dived off after him and after some difficulty 
located him. 

"He brought him up out of the water and after they 
had struggled awhile knocked him senseless." 

Suppose that more and more samples were thus read 
and assigned a place in relation to the samples previously 
read. It is evident that the time would come when the 
difference from sample to sample would be so slight that 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 243 

it would be difficult to make judgments with certainty, 
just as it is impossible to tell with the eye alone whether a 
given bar is 3.65 inches long or 3.66 inches. The series 
of samples as a whole would give an illustration of every 
type of sample from the worst to the best. 

The Hillegas Scale provides a series of selected samples 
whose values have been determined by a statistical 
procedure which enables the results to be expressed 
in units according to a consistent plan. The scorer 
may compare a given specimen with the scale and de- 
termine its value from the values of the scale samples 
between which it is judged to fall, and this can be done 
accurately and consistently.^ 

ANALYSIS OF SCALE 

This, however, is the point at which many stumble, 
for misunderstanding easily arises. Many see in the 
scale only a series of distinct compositions differing in 
content and style. They do not generahze from these 
compositions and carry in mind a general concept of 
"progress-in-English-composition-as-a-whole" of which 
the samples are merely particular illustrations. Yet the 
fact of such progress is self-evident. The average child 
entering the first grade cannot express his thoughts in 
writing, and, naturally, when he begins to do so, his 
attempts are very imperfect. After twelve years of 



^Values of the samples above in terms of Hillegas Scale: Sample i, 
one judge, 35. Sample 2, average of two judgments, 75. Sample 3, 
median of five judgments, 48. Average deviation 2.6. 



244 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

training, however, a high level of abihty may be reached, 
and the progress from the lower to the higher level fol- 
lows certain general tendencies which are represented 
objectively in the samples of the scale. It becomes 
important, therefore, to express these gradations of de- 
velopment in their generalized form and to use the 
samples of the scale only as an aid to judgment in de- 
termining the precise value to be assigned a given com- 
position. 

The writer's generalization of the Hillegas Scale is as 
follows: The development of ability in English composi- 
tion passes through three phases. At first there is the 
struggle to master the mere mechanics of expression, 
the spelhng of words and their arrangement in the con- 
ventional order. Then follows a second stage in which 
the efforts of the person writing are expended mainly 
upon organization of subject matter, the selection of the 
details to be expressed and their organization into con- 
nected discourse. Finally there is the stage of develop- 
ment of literary merit in which choice of words, and the 
selection and organization of subject matter cease to be 
mechanical and become artistic (Figure 40, page 245) . Of 
course, no hard and fast lines can be drawn between one 
phase of ability and another, but the main characteristics 
of each of the three stages of development are well 
marked and serve to fix the limits of value within which 
a given composition must fall. In Appendix A will be 
found illustrations of samples of each type, chosen from 
the Gary compositions on the basis of the judgments of 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 245 

the Gary judges. Reference to this series of samples 
(which in themselves constitute a composition scale) 
will enable any reader to determine for himself exactly 
what a composition of a given value is Hke. 

Figure 40 
Analysis of the Hillegas Composition Scale 

A. Mechanics B. Organization C. Literary Merit 

(Difficult to Read) (Tiresome to Read) (Interesting to Read) 

0-9 30-39 70-79 

Meaning uncertain Mere succession of Interesting material 

after study. sentences loosely marred by imperfect 

joined. choice of words. 

10-19 40-49 80-89 

Meaning decipher- Disconnected sen- Well selected material 

able but with dif- tences with much expressed in well 

ficulty. irrelevant matter. chosen words. 

20-29 50-59 90-99 

Meaning not ap- Connected sentences: Exceptional content 

parent on first Few mistakes, unin- and quality, 

reading. teresting material. 

60-69 
Well organized, but o 

common place in 
content. 

This analysis should be read as follows: If a composition because 
of its gross errors in mechanics proves difficult to read and understand, 
it falls in the first division of the scale (0-30). If the meaning is not 
clear after repeated attempts to decipher the composition, the value 
assigned it should be between o and 9 points, depending on the amount 
which can be read. If the meaning is decipherable, but with difficulty, 
its quality should be rated from 10 to 19 points, and so on. 



246 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

TRAINING OF SCORERS 

The five judges who scored the eighth grade samples 
at Gary had had some experience in the use of the scale, 
but only one (the writer) was convinced that scoring 
by means of a scale yields constant and reliable results. 
Accordingly, the first work of scoring was the training of 
these judges in the use of the scale. The samples of the 
Hillegas Scale were cut apart and given to the scorers, one 
at a time, to be arranged in order of merit, as was illus- 
trated in the case of samples i, 2, and 3, pages 241 and 242. 
The differences between the first samples given out for 
comparison were made very large in order that the judg- 
ments of the scorers might agree. This estabhshed the 
fact that the judges were able to recognize gross differences 
in merit. Little by httle, however, the amount of difference 
from sample to sample was decreased until the limits of 
discrimination of the judges was reached. A discussion 
of the reasons for the relative positions assigned the 
samples by each judge, and of the characteristics of the 
samples themselves, then followed until some agreement 
had been reached as to the basis on which judgment was 
to be made. Finally, a certain amount of practice scor- 
ing was done on samples whose values are known, using 
those given in the Butte and other surveys, and in the 
articles on measurement of English composition which 
have been pubHshed from time to time.^ In this way 
the basis of making judgments was soon standardized. 

'At tMs time the standard samples issued by Professor Thorndike 
were not available. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 247 

SCORING OF PAPERS 

When it had been determined that the judges could use 
the scale consistently, the scoring of the Gary composi- 
tions began. The eighth grade papers were scored by all 
the judges, but two judges did most of the scoring of the 
papers of other grades, each class being scored by a single 
judge. At intervals, however, these judges re-scored 
certain classes to make sure their standards were not 
changing. Also, as early as possible a set of compositions 
(mainly those given in V, Appendix A) was chosen from 
the Gary papers to form the Gary scale, and in cases of 
doubt papers were referred to both the Gary Scale and 
the Hillegas Scale. Most of the judges, however, pre- 
ferred to use the Hillegas Scale rather than the scale of 
uniform material derived from it. 

Each paper was assigned the mark which expressed 
the judgment of the scorer as to its true value, as 37, 
39, 43, etc. In this respect the practice at Gary differed 
from that sometimes followed of giving each paper the 
value of the scale sample it most resembled. ,Thus in 
the Butte survey, compositions were marked at "o, i, 
2, etc., according to which one of the printed compositions 
they thought it most like." A similar practice was fol- 
lowed in the Salt Lake City survey. 

RELIABILITY OF SCORING 

A study was made of the variations in judgments in 
scoring the eighth grade samples. For instance, in one 



248 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



X 


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++++ I + 1 I + I + ++ II I i+T I 



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I + l + l I +1 I 1 + 1+ +111 + 



irtooM-^cocoooinLoinooooooooMM^ooNNOOoooin 

I 7+1+1 (+1 +++I 11+7+ ++ 



OL005U5rtt>C<IOOi-(OOOOOlrtOOOlrtCONLnU'jt»T)'OOONOO 

I I I I 1 + 1+ 1777+7+1 1 77+++ 



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+++ ++++I++ ++ +• ++++++ +i77 






COCOMCOCOCOCOCOCO-*-*-*'*'*-"*''!"'*-*'*-' 



tDMOOtO(OOOOOCOOOOOCOO«5MOOMmCCMOOQt^MQ«OOOt5-lrt 



<ooLnmtot^LnoMOOirtOLnLnoou5t^Qf;QL'''5Q"'"'Q04J 



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ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



249 





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2SO 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 41 
Variations in Quality — ^Based on Table LX 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION -VARIATION IN SCORING 

QUA'LITY-HfLLEGAS DEVIATIONS FROn MEDIAN 
O 20 4-0 60 +10 +5 +1 0-1-5 -10-15 



J — i 



A 
B 

II D 
£ 

A 
. B 

13 c 

D 
E 



CLASS 




T to 2 7 



till 



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B 

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CL 



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A 
B 

24C 

E 



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B 

^0<r 

D 
£ 



4- 4 2 10 4 4 ^ 



^ D 



11 4 8 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 251 



Figure 41 — Continued 

Tlie diagrams at the left hand side of the figure represent individual 
papers. The numbers 11, 13, 7, 24, and 30 refer to the numbers of the 
papers in Table LX. Letters A, B, C, and D, refer to the different judges. 
Class iiTdicates values for class as a whole. Each light line in the dia- 
gram represents the value assigned the sample by one judge. Each heavy 
line represents the value adopted as the true value of the sample. The 
scale along the top of the figure represents quality on the HiUegas 
Scale. The diagram shows that for the class as a whole the class scores 
as determined from the scores from each judge, except A, agree closely 
with the value as determined from the combined score of the five inde- 
pendent judgments. 

The diagrams marked 11 and 13 represent the scores of samples upon 
which there was close agreement between the five judges. Paper 7 rep- 
resents the scores for a sample in which Judge A alone showed a wide 
variation. Papers 24 and 30 represent samples upon which there was 
little agreement between the different judges. 

The diagrams on the right hand side of the figure show the distribution 
of the deviations from the score adopted as the true value of the samples. 
The scale at the top shows the magnitude and quality of the deviations. 
Figures written in the diagram just above the base line show for each 
distribution the number of variations of a given type. The diagram for 
Judge A is to be read as foUows: 

Out of 30 papers Judge A gave 6 scores which were from 10 to 14 
points larger than the real value of the paper, 1 1 scores from which were 
from 5 to 9 points higher, 10 scores which were from exactly the same or 
within 4 points higher or lower, and i score each of value 5 to 9, 10 to 14, 
or 15 to 19 points lower than the score adopted as the true value. Note 
that Judge A has a tendency to score papers too high, while Judge B has a 
tendency to score papers too low. Note also that in the distribution of 
the class as a whole the distribution is sjonmetrical about the zero 
point, and that out of 150 deviations 73 are less than 5 points. 



252 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

eighth grade class (Table LX, page 248, Figure 41, page 
250), while individual judges differ widely on certain 
samples (see numbers 3, 24, 29, and 30), yet the scores as 
a whole show close agreement. Of the 150 individual 
ratings given by the five judges on the thirty papers of 
this class, 46, or 31 per cent., agree exactly with the median 
score; 56 more, or 37 per cent., do not differ more than 5 
points, or half a step of the scale ; and only 10, or 7 per 
cent., of the judgments differ more than one step from 
the median values. Fifty two deviations are positive, 
and 52 negative; that is, variations are as likely to be 
toward high scores as toward low, and in a large num- 
ber of scorings cancel each other. 

The effect of this neutralization of errors is seen in the 
class scores. The actual median score of the class as a 
whole, as determined by the scores of each of the five 
judges, is practically the same as the class score as de- 
termined from the combined scores of the judges (40). 
For three of the judges, the values are identical (40). 
The other two judges differ less than one step of the scale 
(Judge A, 47.5, Judge E, 41.5). Even if the computed 
medians are used, the differences in no case amount to 
more than one step of the scale. That is, the score of 
the class determined by the scores of a single judge are 
not likely to vary at most more than 10 points from the 
true value. 

The average deviation for all samples and judges is 
4.5 points. For individual judges, the values range 
from 5.8 points to ^,.6 points. Therefore, the uncer- 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 253 

tainty of the scoring by means of the scale amounts, on 
the average, to about half a step. 

This conclusion is borne out by the combined results 
for the 127 eighth grade papers. The average deviation' 
of 635 judgments was 5.5 points (median 5.3). Thirty 
per -cent, of all the judgments agreed exactly with the 
combined scores, while 18 per cent, additional fell within 
5 points. Seventy five per cent, of all the deviations 
were less than 10 points. 

The agreement of the median class scores as deter- 
mined from the scores of each judge with the class score 
determined from the combined judgments is close. In 
three cases only (Judge A) are they larger than 10. 
Excluding Judge A, the average is 3.5 points. For 
Judge A the average is 10.5 points. Therefore, the 
classes were scored consistently and the results may be 
taken as correct within 10 points. The chances are about 
even that a re-scoring of the papers by a different set of 
trained judges would yield the same results as those 
given in the tables within 5 points. 

The different judges proved to have persistent biases. 
Judge A, for instance, had a tendency to overestimate the 
quaUty of a paper, while Judge B underestimated values. 
These personal biases persist through long periods and 
may be determined and allowed for. As the eighth grade 
scores are the median of the five judgments, the bias of 
Judge A toward high ratings does not affect the results 
greatly. All other grades except the eighth were scored 
by Judges C and D. The differences of the class scores of 



254 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

the five eighth grade classes as determined by the scor- 
ings of each of these judges from the same scores based 
upon the combined judgments of the five judges were, for 
Judge C, o, 5, o, 3, 5, 7 (average 3 points); for Judge D, 
7, 4, o, 5, I (average 3.4 points). The scores from grade 
to grade are, therefore, consistent and comparable 
within the limit of errors noted. 

METHOD OF TABULATION 

In the tabulation of results the composition scores were 
grouped by tens. That is, the number of papers having 
a score in the 30's was recorded as one frequency, all the 
40's as another, and so on. In the Butte survey, how- 
ever, the frequencies based upon the Hillegas sample 
values were recorded for scores 30, 40, 50, 60, etc. That 
is, a group of scores extending from 31 to 42 and center- 
ing at 36.9 was recorded as if extending from 30 to 40 
centering at 35. The medians are, however, correctly 
figured from the beginnings of the steps, and that the 
method distorts the results is due wholly to the fact 
that the values of the samples in the scale are 18, 26, 
37, etc., instead of 15, 25, 35. In the Salt Lake City 
survey the same practice was followed, and, in addition, 
in computing medians 30 was taken as meaning values 
from 25 to 35. The effect of this is to lower all medians 
approximately 7 points from the actual value of the me- 
dian paper. For instance, class No. 14 Emerson (eighth 
grade) made a median score of 47 Hillegas as determined 
by the Gary procedure. According to the Butte meth- 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 255 

ods the score would have been 46.8, according to the 
Salt Lake City methods 38. The actual median score 
was 45. The Gary class scores may, therefore, be from 2 
to 9 points higher than they would have been if a differ- 
ent method of tabulation had been followed. The writer 
believes, however, that the method used in this survey 
reveals more precisely the true value of the class product. 
The practice in other surveys is not known. In view of 
the possibiHties of such differences, as well as the uncer- 
tainty in regard to standards adopted in scoring, little 
reliance can be placed upon comparative data. The 
reader should study the illustrative samples given and 
interpret the Gary results in the light of these samples. 
The use of a scale has at least served to standardize the 
scoring of the Gary judges and to permit the presentation 
of results in terms which are not ambiguous in meaning. 

ERRORS IN PUNCTUATION AND GRAMMAR 

The great difficulty in scoring papers for errors in 
punctuation and grammar is the lack of a standard basis 
for determining errors. The rules of pimctuation are 
not absolute, and the constructions to be counted as 
errors in syntax vary greatly with different examiners. 
Further, comparative data are lacking, so that the re- 
sults have Httle significance. It is not enough to know 
that a child makes a niunber of errors in grammar. We 
must know also whether the number of errors is greater 
or less than the errors made by the average child of the 
same grade. 



256 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



257 



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258 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

In the Willing Composition Scale used in the Denver 
survey, not only is judgment based on general merit, 
but the attempt is made to grade the samples on the 
basis of the frequency of error as well; thus, composi- 
tions of quality 20 have, on the average, 30 mistakes 
in spelling, punctuation, and syntax per 100 words 
written. By quality 50 the number of mistakes has fallen 
to 14 and by quality 70 to 8. Unfortunately, however, 
no statement is made as to the type of mistakes which 
were counted as errors. 

For the Gary work, after a careful study of represen- 
tative papers, it was decided to Umit the scoring to gross 
errors. For capitalization three mistakes only were 
counted: 

1. Failure to begin a sentence with a capital letter. 

2. Failure to capitalize a proper noun. 

3. The capitalization of common nouns. 

In punctuation, also, only three errors were counted: 

1. Failure to place a period at the end of a sentence. 

2. Failure to place a question mark at the end of a 

question. 

3. Failure to enclose a direct quotation in quotation 

marks. 

In some cases it was found that where the period had 
been omitted at the end of a sentence, the following 
sentence was not commenced with a capital. This was 
not counted as two errors, but recorded as the "period" 
error only. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 259 

Eight types of errors in syntax were recorded : 

1. The use of the wrong case form, as "me and him 

went." 

2. The use of one word in place of another, as "it 

would of (have) been." 

3. Lack of agreement of noun and pronoun, as "the 

pieces were about the size— and it break," 

4. Lack of agreement between subject and verb, as 

"they was." 

5. Use of the wrong tense form, as "seen" for "saw." 

6. Use of the double negative. 

7. Confusion of dependent and independent clauses, 

as ". . . away, but worst thing was that 
there were not light on the streets and no road 
but a Httle path through the wood but I dressed 
up and took my dog and started off we were not 
far from home when my dog his name was 
Rover began to chase after I was a fright to go 
myself and began. . . ." 

8. Omission of words essential to the thought, or the 

addition of irrelevant words, as "began to chase 
after (a rabbit, omitted) I was a fright to go 
myself." 
A few gross errors were recorded which do not fall under 
any of the headings given above, but their number was 
so small (8 per cent, of the total) that it has not been 
thought necessary to list them in detail. 

Each paper was scored by two examiners independ- 
ently. There were marked disagreements between their 



26o 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



TABLE LXII 

COEFFICTENTS OF CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN QUALITY AND A NuMBER 

OF Specific Characteristics^ 



Quality 

Total Length 

DifEerent Words 

Vocabulary Index 

Spelling Errors (Coefi&cient) 

Errors in Grammar (Coefficient) .... 

Errors in Spelling and Grammar 

(Total per paper) 



MEDIAN 



43.5 
209 
106 

22.5 
22.5 

10.5 



MEDIAN 
DEVIATION 



4 

54 
24.5 
2.8 
12.5 
15.2 

6.5 



TOTAL 
R.4NGE 



36- 67 

107^26 

65-161 

35- 62 

0- 88 

0-129 

0-43 



Percentage of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Relative 
Position More Than One Unit of Variability, Where 
Quality of Composition Is Compared with 



total 

NUMBER 

OF 

WORDS 


NUMBER 

OF 

DIFFERENT 

WORDS 


VOCABU- 
LARY 
INDEX 


COEFFICIENT 

OF ERRORS 

IN 

SPELLING 


COEFFICIENT 

OF ERRORS 

IN 

GRAMMAR 


TOTAL 

MISTAKES 

PER 

PAPER 


33 


33 


33 
16* 


—38 
—30* 


—52 
—44* 


—48 
—36* 



The coefficient of correspondence between errors in spelling and errors 
in grammar was 48 per cent. (+ .60)*. 
'Based on papers of forty two eighth grade children present for all tests. 
'Pearson coefficient of correlation. 

This table is to be read as follows: If each child's position in the class 
distribution for total length of composition be compared with his position 
in the class distribution for quality of composition, when both positions 
are expressed in terms of the median deviation of the class as a whole^ 
33 per cent, of the children will be found to have maintained the same 
relative position within one unit of variability. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 261 

FiGTJEE 42 

Degree of CoiiRESPO>rDENCE Between Errors nsr Spelling and 
Errors in Grammar 

"^•fWuHiy tLaiio Cofrel.tion 

CorT..po„,i.„c.of ACTUAL MISSPELLINGS to ACTUAL ERRORS !N GRAMMAR 

C.T.4. V„. 2.5 C.T.5.5 Vor. 4.0 



> I ■" > 



it 



:=^ 



V 




N«..Wl 3 5 7 9 II 13 15 ir 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 J5 37 '„' 41 
Tot«l Numbtr of Cnt»AZ.^amUt wlihl- I-, ,l!„i.. Pq_ Fnctnlt^ af CotM«pBndw.M__iiflg. 

The numbers along the base of the figure represent the 42 individuals of 
an eighth grade group. The scale along the left hand axis represents 
units of variability (median deviation above and below the median of 
the class). The solid line represents variability ratios for errors in 
spelling. The broken line represents similar ratios for errors in grammar. 

The curves show that approximately 50 per cent, of the children 
maintain the salne position in the two distributions within one unit of 
variability. That is, individual No. i makes very few errors in either 
spelling or grammar. Individual No. 3, however, while at the top of the 
class in accuracy of spelling, is below the median for number of errors in 
grammar. Individuals Nos. 12,25, and 39 represent extreme deviations. 
Individual No. 37 represents a variant of the opposite type. In other 
words, he makes many errors in spelling, but is exactly at the median for 
errors in grammar. 

The reader should note that both distributions are badly skewed; the 
range of variation above the median being a little over i and below the 
median 8.8. 



262 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

scores. The attempt was made to harmonize the various 
judgments, but it proved so costly in time, and the final 
decision seemed to rest upon such uncertain bases, that 
in view of the lack of comparative data it was decided the 
results were not worth the time and effort. Accordingly, 
the averages of the errors recorded by the two exam- 
iners were taken as the scores for each individual.^ 

FACTORS DETERMINING MERIT 

The tabulation of the different types of errors affords a 
chance to investigate the relation between general merit 
in compvosition and its various characteristics — spelling, 
punctuation, and grammar. It would appear that judg- 
ments as to quahty of composition are affected more by 
errors in spelHng (coefficient of correspondence 38 per 
cent.) and still more by errors in capitaHzation, punctua- 
tion, and grammar (52 per cent.) than by the number of 
different words used {;^;^ per cent.) (Table LXII, page 260) . 
The coefficient of correspondence based upon total mis- 
takes is intermediate between those for spelling and gram- 
mar (48 per cent.) (Figure 42, page 261). These coeffi- 
cients mean that in judging compositions one is influ- 
enced now by one factor and now by another. 



^A complete record of the scoring for Class No. 45 Froebel will be found 
in Table LXI, page 256. 



VII. READING 

" §1. General Results 

THE Gary schools recognize the importance of read- 
ing by allotting to the subject annually 1,323 hours, 
as compared with 1,280 hours in the conventional 
school, or 26 per cent, of the time given to fundamentals, 
as compared with 24 per cent, in conventional schools. 

READING ABILITY 

In current practice the direct teaching of the mechanics 
of reading rarely extends beyond the third grade. Read- 
ing in the higher grades passes over into training in ex- 
pression, in understanding, and in appreciation. Conse- 
quently ability in reading comes to have many meanings, 
each derived from the situation to which the term is 
applied. AbiHty in reading may mean : 

(i) Ability to recognize silently the general meaning 
of words of a given range of difficulty. (Otis.) 

(2) Ability to " sound '* correctly a given set of words. 

(Jones.) 

(3) Ability to read aloud smoothly and with proper 

expression (without regard to whether the mean- 
ing is understood or not). (Gray.) 
263 



264 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

(4) Ability to read either silently or orally and to under- 

stand the essential relations existing between the 
essential elements of what is read. (Courtis.) 

(5) Ability to read either silently or orally and tell 

in one's own words the substance of what has 
been read. (Starch, Brown, Gray.) 

(6) Ability to read instructions either silently or 

orally and be able to act in accordance with the 
instructions. (Kelly.) 

(7) Ability to read again and again (study) until one 

has mastered the contents of a passage so that 
one can answer questions about it or use the 
information in solving problems. (Thorndike.) 

(8) Ability to read a passage and interpret the allu- 

sions which it contains. 

(9) Ability to read a selection and be stirred emo- 

tionally by its aesthetic elements. 

(10) Ability to read a passage and interpret the mood, 

ideas, or ideals of the author. 

(11) Ability to read a selection and make Judgments as to 

its style and merits as a piece of "good English." 
And there are doubtless many other possible variations of 
the senses in which "ability to read " may be understood. 
Unfortunately, the makers of tests have not given 
much attention to this phase of the subject. They have 
labeled their productions "Tests of Reading," and have 
been content to say explicitly^ or to imply that by reading 

^Teachers College Record, January 191 6, p. 40: An Improved Scale for 
Measuring Ability in Reading — Thorndike. "Call difficulty for para- 



READING 265 

ability is meant the ability to complete this test success- 
fully. But when several such tests are given to the same 
children, as at Gary, one would seem to have the right 
to expect that the reading abilities of the children as 
revealed by one test will show some agreement with the 
reading abiHties revealed by the next test, since both 
are tests of reading. This, however, is precisely what 
the results in general do not show.^ 

The tests given at Gary simply reveal the character of 
the response made by the children to a nimiber of specific 
situations in which ability in reading enters as one ele- 
ment. To aid the reader in appraising the value of the 
results and in deciding to what extent each test measures 
mainly reading or mainly some other abilities, some de- 
scription of the tests used is necessary. 

MEASUREMENT OF ORAL READING 

In oral reading, the measurable elements are the rate 
and accuracy of reading, and the quaUty of expression. 



graph reading a characteristic of a paragraph and question about the 
paragraph much of which produces a large percentage of wrong responses 
to the questions, and little of which produces few, the individuals con- 
cerned being the same. 

"CaU achievement in paragraph reading that thing much of which en- 
ables an indi\ddual to respond correctly to a paragraph and a question 
about the paragraph involving much difficulty for paragraph reading 
whereas an individual of less achievement could respond correctly only 
to a paragraph and a question about the paragraph of less difficulty." 

iSee Richards and Davidson, School and Society, Vol. IV, September 
2, 1916. 



266 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Gray's Oral Reading Scale was used to measure the first 
two of these elements. 

This scale consists of a number of paragraphs each a 
little more difficult in content, vocabulary, and structure 
than the one before it. It is essentially a difiiculty test; 
that is, each child begins with simple material well 
within his range of abihty and progresses through the 
scale until he reaches material which is so difficult that 
he fails. The time required to read each paragraph and 
the mistakes made in reading them are noted. It is 
thus possible to report the results of training in objective 
terms. 

The median ability of eighth grade Gary children in 
oral reading when thus measured may be inferred from 
Figure 43, page 267. Half of the eighth grade children 
are able to read satisfactorily the sample . paragraph 
there shown. (Gray's Standard 4.)^ 

The range of ability in the eighth grade may be com- 
prehended from the samples shown in Figure 44. Ap- 
proximately 10 per cent, of the children are able to read 
paragraph B under the standard conditions, while about 
10 per cent, are not able to read paragraph C under the 
standard conditions. That is, the abilities of about 80 
per cent, of the eighth grade children fall between these 
limits. 

The abilities of the Gary children expressed in terms of 



^A paragraph is accepted under Gray's Standard 4 if read without 
more than one mistake, or if read in less than 20 seconds without more 
than two mistakes. 



READING 267 

the Gray Scale are as follows: The second grade child 
of median ability is just not able to read paragraph i 
under Gray's Standard 4, the median third grade child 
can read paragraph 2, but not paragraph 3, while the 
median eighth grade child can read paragraph 8, but not 
paragraph 9. 

If successful reading is taken as reading a 'paragraph 
in less than 40 seconds with not more than six errors 
(Gray's Standard i), the median second grade child 
can read paragraph 3 but not 4, while the median eighth 
grade child can read paragraph 11 but not paragraph 12. 

Figure 43 
Dlfficulty of Materiax Represented by Eighth Grade Score 

SAMPLE A 

8 

The crown and glory of a useful life is 
character. It is the noblest possession of 
man. It forms a rank in itself, an estate in 
the general good will, dignifying every sta- 
tion and exalting every position in society. 
It exercises a greater power than wealth, 
and is a valuable means of securing honor. 

Half of the eighth grade children are able to read orally the paragraph 
above in from 20 to 40 seconds without making more than one mistake, 
or to read it in less than 20 seconds without making more than two 
mistakes. (Gray's Standard 4.) The sample is paragraph 8 on Gray's 
Scale. 



268 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 44 
Variations in Eighth Grade Ability 

SAMPLE B 

10 

Responding to the impulse of habit 
Josephus spoke as of old. The others lis- 
tened attentively but in grim and contemp- 
tuous silence. He spoke at length, continu- 
ously, persistently, and ingratiatingly. Fin- 
ally exhausted through loss of strength he 
hesitated. As always happens in such exi- 
gencies he was lost. 

SAMPLE C 

3 

Once there were a cat and a mouse. 
They Hved in the same house. The 
cat bit off the mouse's tail. *Tray, 
puss," said the mouse, ''give me my 
long tail again. 

' 'No, ' ' said the cat, ' 'I will not give 
you your tail till you bring me some 
milk. 



READING 269 

Figure 44 — Continued 

Ten per cent, of the eighth grade children are able to read Sample B 
satisfactorily (under Gray's Standard 4),^ and 10 per cent, are unable to 
read satisfactorily Sample C. That is, the ability of 80 per cent, of 
the eighth grade children ranges between ability to read paragraph B 
and paragraph C. 

Sample B is paragraph No. 10 on Gray's Scale. Sample C is para- 
graph No. 3 on Gray's Scale. Sample C represents the median develop- 
ment of children in the upper half of the third grade at Gary. 

(Table LXIII, page 270.) That is, the development 
of ability in oral reading at Gary is quite uniform from 
grade to grade. (Figure 45, page 271). 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

For many who are not directly engaged in teaching, 
the tables and illustrations given on pages 267 and 268 
will have little meaning. Gray's Scale, however, affords a 
score in points based upon the difficulty of the para- 
graphs, the time taken to read them, and the number of 
errors made. In points the Gary second grade score was 
27 (Cleveland 42, Grand Rapids 44, St. Louis 47, aver- 
age of 23 Illinois cities 20) and the Gary eighth grade 
score 41 (Cleveland 48, Grand Rapids 48, St. Louis 51), 
(Table LXIV, page 272.) The development of ability in 
oral reading at Gary closely parallels the development of 
other cities, but at a level which is about a year below 
the average of other cities. (Figure 46, page 273.) 

^To meet Gray's Standard 4, a paragraph must be read without making 
more than one mistake, or read in less than 20 seconds without making 
more than two mistakes. 

^See page 38. 



270 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



The differences in the performances of the Gary chil- 
dren as compared with those recorded for the average 
children in conventional schools are brought out by an 
analysis of the results. Thus, to read paragraph 4 the 
Gary eighth grade children required 18.7 seconds (Cleve- 
land 16.62, St. Louis 17.85) and made 2.1 mistakes 
(Cleveland 1.24, St. Louis .73). That is, the Gary chil- 
dren read more slowly and make more mistakes than the 
children in Cleveland and St. Louis. 

Silent reading was tested at Gary by a Reading and 
Reproduction Test, by the Kansas Silent Reading Test, 
and by the Trabue Language Scale, but it should be 
recognized at the outset that, because of the dif&culty 



TABLE LXIII 

Median Paragraphs of Gray's Scale Read by the Different 

Grades 



grade 


standard 1 


STANDARD 4 


difference 


2 


3.3 


.9 


2.4 


3 


5.4 


2.1 


3.3 


4 


6.8 


3.9 


2.9 


5 


7.6 


4.4 


3.2 


6 


9.0 


5.4 


3.6 


7 


10.7 


6.8 


3.9 


8 


11.3 


8.1 


3.2 



Standard i. A paragraph is accepted under Gray's Standard i if read 
in forty or more seconds without more than four mistakes, 
or if read in less than forty seconds mthout more than six 
mistakes. 

Standard 4. A paragraph is accepted under Gray's Standard 4 if read 
without more than one mistake, or if read in less than 
twenty seconds without more than two mistakes. 



READING 271 





Figure 45 


Development in Oral Reading Ability— Gray's Oral Reading 




Scale 


PARAGRAPH 


\t- 


DEVELOPHENT OF ABILITY ^tanoaro 


10 


IN ORAL READING ^ 


9 


^y^ STANDARD 


S 


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GRADE. 



The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
along the vertical axis represents the paragraphs of Gray's Scale. The 
solid line shows the median ability of each class under Standard i in terms 
of Gray's Scale. Broken line shows the median ability of each class in 
terms of Standard 4. 

The two curves show there is a steady and quite uniform development 
throughout the grades. 

of the problem and the lack of adequate tests, the meas- 
urements of silent reading at Gary are less conclusive 
than are the measurements previously discussed. 

Silent reading is carried on primarily for the reader's 
benefit. Its most important aspect is the degree of com- 
prehension of meaning, its second, the rate of reading. 
Unfortunately, however, silent reading, pure and simple, 
is limited to the perception and comprehension of the 



2 72 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

TABLE LXrV" 

Ability in Oral Reading — Gray's Oral Reading Scale 

Scores by points according to Gray's methods. From each class at 
Gary at least ten children were measured (thirty children or more from 
classes in grades three, five and seven). Selections were made on basis 
of teacher's judgment, the three best readers, four average readers, and 
the three worst readers beinK chosen. 



GRADE 


2 


3 

346 
36 


4 


5 


6 

134 
41 


7 

219 
42 


8 


Number of children 

Gary, Actual Average 


102 

27 


126 
39 


297 
39 


52 
41 



23 Illinois Cities^. 

Cleveland- 

Grand Rapids^ . . 
St. Louis* 



20 


27 


[ 40 


44 


45 


47 


42 


46 


47 


48 


49 


47 


44 


47 


49 


50 


48 


48 


47 


50 


52 


51 


51 


51 



48 
48 
51 



•Studies of Elementary School Reading through Standardized Tests — Gray. Page 130. 
'Studies o£ Elementary School Reading through Standardized Tests — Gray. Page 131. 
'Grand Rapids Survey. Page 66. 
^Survey of St. Louis Public Schools, Vol. II, p. ia6. 

This table is to be read as follows: In Gary 102 second grade children, 
selected as representative children from the various classes tested, 
made an average score of 27 points when measured with Gray's Scale 
according to Gray's directions. Twenty three cities in Illinois made 
an average score of 20 in the second grade, Cleveland — 42, Grand 
Rapids — 44, and St. Louis — 47. 

matter read, while any test of comprehension is neces- 
sarily based upon the response an individual makes to 
the test situation. This brings into play new factors. 
Accurate measurement of ability in silent reading, there- 
fore, is exceedingly difficult, and at the time of the Gary 
survey there were no wholly satisfactory tests of silent 
reading. What is probably the best silent reading test 
of all, Thorndike's Scale Alpha 2, it was not practical 



READING 



273 



Figure 46 
City Wide Average Scores by Grades — Gray's Oral Reading 

Scale 



School CIJ-Y- 



THE GARY SURVEY 

_Te.. No.- Q.R AL RCAptNG - GRAY 



GRAND RAPIOS 
GARY 




GRADES 



The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
along the vertical axis represents scores in terms of Gray's Scale. For 
methods of computing these scores and of drawing the graph, see § 2. 
The solid line represents the Gary results; dotted line the scores made 
by the Grand Rapids pupils. The average difference between the Gary 
and Grand Rapids results is 7.6 points, while the average annual growth 
is 5 points. The Gary scores are thus approximately a year and a half 
lower than those from Grand Rapids. 

to use owing to the conditions under which the survey was 
conducted. However, several of the conventional read- 
ing tests were given and while the results do not tell 
the whole story, they tell enough to show some of the 
important characteristics of the product. 



274 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

REPRODUCTION TESTS 

The simplest test of silent reading would seem to be 
the measurement of the rate at which a story is read, 
and the quality of a reproduction of the story. This 
method has been followed by Gray, Starch, Brown, and 
other investigators. However, a little reflection will 
show that reproduction is determined more largely by 
(i) memory and (2) abiHty in EngHsh composition than 
by ability to read and understand. 1 Hence, reading and 
reproduction tests were given at Gary to determine 
(i) the median rate of reading for the different grades, 
and (2) the stability of the reading habits of the Gary 
children as measured by individual fluctuations in rate 
in successive tests.^ 

The test materials were interesting stories taken from 
children's magazines. A very simple story was used in 
grades two to five, a little more complex story in grades 
five to eight, and a portion of an adult biography in 
grades eight to twelve. Finally a fourth story (child's) 
was given to grades four to twelve under uniform 
conditions. Thus all grades from four to twelve were 
measured at least twice, and some three times. From 



^For a critical discussion of what reproduction tests measure and their 
relation to silent reading, see §2 of^this chapter, page 314, and IX of 
Appendix A, page 443. 

The tests were also scored for quality of reproduction according to 
the conventional plan, but as the writer does not regard the results as 
significant except as a confirmation of the conclusions of the chapter 
on English composition, they have been put in IX of Appendix A. 



READING 275 

the repeated measurements, tabulations were made, 
both of the rate of reading and of the amount of indi- 
vidual variation in successive tests. 

The median rate at which the eighth grade children 
read the children's stories were 201 and 207 words per 
minute respectively. The median rate for the more 
difficult story was 170 words per minute. A rate of 
204 (the average of 201 and 207) words per minute was 
chosen as best representing the ordinary reading rate of 
eighth grade children on material suitable for their 
grade. The corresponding eighth grade rate of oral 
reading was 200 words per minute (based on paragraphs 
2 and 3 of Gray's Oral Reading Scale). That is, the 
rates of oral and silent reading were nearly the same. 
(Table LXV, page 276.) 

A comparison of the rates of oral and silent reading 
by grades shows that the rate of oral reading is at first 
greater than that for silent reading (second grade rate 
for oral reading 78 words per minute, rate for silent read- 
ing 54) but from the sixth grade on it is the rate of silent 
reading that is the greater (sixth grade oral 183, silent 
185). The development of ability in silent reading is 
rapid in the lower grades (difference between oral and 
sUent reading for grade two was 20 words per minute; 
grade six, 2 words per minute) but from the sixth grade 
on the two rates differ but little. (Figure 47, page 278.) 

The curve for the development of rate of silent reading 
is of the conventional type and shows the usual well 
marked tendency to reach a maximum at the eighth 



276 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 277 

grade (seventh grade 198 words, eighth grade 204 
words). The change of this maximum to a higher level 
during high school years (ninth grade 235) is readily 
explained on the basis of the selective action of promo- 
tion to high school grades. Therefore, there is at Gary 
continuous and well marked development of the con- 
ventional type of ability to read silently as measured by 
rate of reading. 

In Table LXV, page 276, the median individual varia- 
tion in rate of reading in two trials of tests composed of 
material of equal difficulty is given as 33 words per minute. 
This ranges from 39 words per minute, when the rate 
of reading is from 10 to 100 words per minute,* to 25 
words per minute, when the rate of reading varies from 
300 to 380 words per minute.^ In other words, the 
variability of a child's performance decreases as the rate 
of reading increases. Children who read but 60 or 70 
words per minute in one test wiU, in half the cases, make 
a score of 105 or more words per minute in a second 
trial with material of equal difficulty, or vice versa, 
but children who read at the rate of 350 words per min- 
ute, in a second test will, in half the cases, not make 
scores of more than 375 words per minute in a second 
trial. That is, for slow, immature readers the variation 
at Gary is 67 per cent, while for rapid readers it is but 
7 per cent, of their rate. The median rate of variation 
for 118 eighth grade children was 20 per cent. This 

^Median of 103 cases, 58 words per minute. 
^Median of 20 cases, 365 words per minute. 



278 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 47 
Comparative Rates of Oral and Silent Reading 

THE GAHY SURVEY 

Sckooi C.IXY , Twi No— READING - RATX-, 

WORDS PER MINUTE 

300- 



200- 



100- 



SILENT 



-irrr:^- ORAL 



CBACBACBACBACBACB* 

3 4 5 6 7 8 

GRADES 



The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
along the vertical axis represents number of words read per minute. 
Oral reading is based upon the rate of reading paragraphs one and two of 
Gray's Scale; story of approximately equal difl&culty. The solid line — 
silent reading; the dotted line — oral reading. 

The curve for the development of rate of silent reading is of the conven- 
tional type and shows a tendency to approach a maximum at the eighth 
grade. The portion of the curve for high school years reaches a higher 
level. This is probably due to the selective effect of promotion to high 
school upon ability. The rate of oral reading in the lower grades is 
slightly higher than the rate for silent reading, but in the upper grades 
this condition is reversed. This probably means that the emphasis of 
instruction in the Gary schools on oral reading operates to prevent proper 
development of ability in silent reading. 



READING 279 

indicates that there are many eighth grade children whose 
reading abilities are unstable. Unfortunately, no com- 
parative data are available on this point so that it 
is impossible to tell whether conditions at Gary are 
better or worse than elsewhere. This degree of vari- 
abihty probably represents an undesirable characteristic 
of the product of instruction in reading. 

COMPARATIVE DATA^ 

At Gary the eighth grade rate of reading orally para- 
graph I on Gray's Scale was 204 words per minute, 
while in Cleveland it was 214 words, and in St. Louis 
179 words. For paragraph 4, a more difficult paragraph, 
the rate at Gary was 196 words, at Cleveland 220, and 
at St. Louis 205. (Table LXVI, page 280.) 

Similarly, the eighth grade rate for silent reading was, 
at Gary, 204 words per minute, while the rate recorded 
by Starch is 240 words, by Gray 234 words, by Brown 
290 words, by Courtis 280 words, and by the Salt Lake 
City survey 209 words. (Table LXVII, page 282.) 

KA.NSAS SILENT EEADING TESTS 

The Kansas Silent Reading Tests consist of a number 
of short paragraphs each of which directs the child to 
make some response, and the accuracy with which this 
is done indicates whether or not he has read the directions 
understandingly. As illustrations of their character the 

^See page 38. 



28o 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 





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READING 281 

first two paragraphs of the test for the third, fourth, and 
fifth grades (Test I), two paragraphs of a different sort 
(numbers six and eight) from the test for the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades (Test II), and two para- 
graphs of still a different kind from the test for the ninth, 
tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades (Test III) are shown 
in Figure 48, page 283. From these it will be seen that 
the tests cover a very wide range of reading material and 
very different reading situations, yet in every case the 
response is simple and is easily judged to be right or 
wrong. 

It will be apparent upon inspection that while reading 
enters as one element of the activities called for by the 
test, the other activities of observing, analyzing, judg- 
ing, reasoning, etc., form such a large part of the total 
activity that the tests may legitimately be considered 
to be measures of general intelligence rather than meas- 
ures of mechanical skill in reading. In the judgment 
of the author of this report, the tests afford a valuable 
index of the degree of development attained in the 
ability "to read and think about what is read." 

At Gary Test I was given to all grades from the third 
to the twelfth, but the time was reduced to three minutes 
in all grades above the eighth, and the scores that 
would have been made in five minutes, the standard 
time allowance, were computed by multiplying the 
actual scores by %. Test 11^ was given in grades four 



^Scores in Test II have proved to be slightly lower than scores in Tests 
I and III. 



282 THE GARY SCHOOLS^ 

TABLE LXVII 
Comparative Data for Rates of Silent Reading 





GAEY» 


staechS 


SALT 
LAKE 
CITY' 


GHAY< 


BROWN^ 


COXIRTIS* 






NOBMAL 
READING 






ACTUAL 


ADJUSTED 


CAREFUL 
READING 


2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 


54 
109 
140 
166 
185 
198 
204 
235 
249 
262 
270 


108 
126 
144 
168 
192 
216 
240 


189 

212 
219 
209 


90 
138 
132 
152 
167 
161 
172 


90 
138 
180 
204 
216 
228 
234 


199 
213 
269 
272 
279 
290 


161 
180 
226 
256 
262 


106 
183 
172 
178 
200 



Material increases in difficulty from lower to 



JOn the basis of uniform material. 

^Educational Measurements, p. 32. 
higher grades. 

'Report of Salt Lake City Survey, p. 160. Uniform material. 

*Scale from diagram 17, Studies of Elementary School Reading through Standardized 
Tests— Gray. Adjusted rates are on basis of uniform material. 

5 Bulletin No. i. Bureau of Research, Department of Public Instruction, New Hamp- 
shire, p. 57. Variable material. 

^Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, p. 50. Uni- 
form material. 

Rates in different cities are based on different materials, hence the 
results are of value only for general comparisons. 

This table is to be read as follows: In Gary, the fifth grade children 
read silently a simple story at the rate of 166 words per minute. Ac- 
cording to Starch the average rate at which fifth grade children should 
read stories silently is 168 words per minute. In Salt Lake City the 
average rate for the fifth grade was 189 words per minute. According 
to Gray the rate is 152 words per minute on difficult material or 204 
words per minute if adjustment is made for difficulty. (Based on scores 
of 13 cities of Iowa, Minnesota, Tennessee, and Illinois.) His method of 
computing rate of silent reading is considered later. According to Brown, 
the best average made by any fifth grade class so far measured by him 
is 269 words per minute. According to Courtis, the average rate of nor- 
mal reading is i8o words per minute; of careful reading 133 words per 
minute. 



READING 283 

FiGXJRE 48 

Sample Paragraphs from the Kansas Silent Reading Tests 
PARAGRAPH A FROM TEST I 

I have red, green and yellow papers in my 

Value hand. If I place the red and green papers on 

1.2" the chair, which color do I still have in my hand? 



PARAGRAPH B FROM TEST I 

Think of the thickness of the peelings of 
Value apples and oranges. Put a line around the 

1 . 2 name of the fruit having the thinner peeling. 

Apples Oranges. 

PARAGRAPH C FROM TEST II 

In going to school, James has to pass John's 
Value house, but does not pass Frank's. If Harry 

2.3 goes to school with James whose house will 
Harry pass, John's or Frank's? 



PARAGRAPH D FROM TEST 11 



Here are two squares. Draw a line from the 

Value upper left-hand corner of the small square to 

2 . 6 the lower right-hand corner of the large square. 



D 



284 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 4S— Continued 
PARAGRAPH E FROM TEST III 

Bone is composed of animal matter and 
mineral matter. The former gives it tough- 
Value ness and the latter rigidity. Yesterday I 
4.3 placed a bone from a chicken's leg in a bottle 
of acid, and found this morning that I could 
wrap the bone around my finger Hke gristle. 
Which kind of matter was removed from the 
bone? 



PARAGRAPH F FROM TEST HI 

There are three horizontal lines; the first is 
three inches in length, the second two inches, 
the third one inch. We know that if the second 
Value and third Hnes are joined end to end the re- 
4.8 suiting line will be as long as the first line. 
Suppose that the first and second lines are 
joined end to end. How many times as long 
as the third line will the resulting line be? 



Paragraphs A and B from Test I (for grades three, four, and five). 
Paragraphs C and D from Test II (for grades five, sLx, seven, and eight) . 
Paragraphs E and F from Test III (for high school grades) . 

These paragraphs were selected as representative of the different ty'pes 
of activities called for in the test. It should be noted that while the 



READING 28s 

Figure 48 — Cofitinued 

reading activity is one element determining a correct response, it is but 
one. The Kansas Tests probably measure the ability to read and under- 
stand, and to think or reason about what is read. 

to nine and Test III from grades eight to twelve. The 
conventional scores were found according to the standard 
instructions, and for comparative purposes only those 
results were taken which were derived from tests given 
to the grades and under the conditions provided in the 
standard directions. For the discussion of the condi- 
tions as they appear at Gary, however, the results from 
Test I (for all three tests in the eighth grade) were tabu- 
lated for rate of work (total mmiber of points attempted) 
and for accuracy (ratio of points right to points at- 
tempted, expressed as rate per cent).^ 

The eighth grade at Gary attempted 23.9 points in 
Test I with an accuracy of 83 per cent. (Table LXVIII, 
page 287). Both the rate and the accuracy of work in- 
crease quite regularly throughout the grades (third grade 
12.3 points attempted, 28 per cent, accuracy) showing 
that the development of abiHty in rate is of the conven- 
tional type (Figure 49, page 288) . The ninth grade scores 
indicate a very great increase over those of the eighth 
grade (23.9 to 34.0 points attempted and S^ to 88 per 
cent, accuracy), but this may be due to difference in con- 
ditions imder which the tests were given. 

The reader should note that the level of accuracy 

^The reader should note that this method of tabulation is a departure 
from conventional methods. See also page 186. 



286 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

reached by the eighth grade is St, per cent. That is, 
half the children in the eighth grade are able to read the 
simple paragraphs designed for the measurement of the 
ability of the third grade children only well enough to 
give correct answers to a little more than eight out of 
ten questions. This will furnish the reader with a basis 
of estimating directly the degree of ability in reading of 
the Gary eighth grade children, and of interpreting the 
results given in the table.'^ 

In terms of the conventional score for the Kansas 
Test, the ability of the eighth grade is about 21 points 
(Test I, 21.3 points; Test II, 18.7 points, Test III, 
22.1 points). (Figure 50, page 289.) 

COMPARATIVE DATA- 

The scores of the Gary eighth grade classes are practi- 
cally the same as the corresponding scores made by 
classes in other cities (Gary 18.7, Kansas 20.1, Iowa 20.6, 
Detroit 19.0, New Orleans 19.1, combined tabulations 
from all parts of the country 19.2). The scores of the 
third grade at Gary are very much below those made by 
other cities (Gary 2.5, median of country 5.3) (Table 
LXIX, page 290). That is, the abiKties measured by 
the Kansas Reading Tests begin to develop later at Gary 



^The reader should note that this statement stands by itself and has no 
significance from the comparative point of view. In the absence of com- 
parative data, it is impossible to say whether this performance is better or 
worse than that of children in conventional schools. 

-See page 3S. 



READING 



287 



TABLE LXVIII 
City Wide Median Scores — Kansas Reading Tests 



GRADE 


GARY 


TEST I 


GARY 
TEST if 


GARY 
TEST II 


GARY 




KATE 


ACXJTJRACYt 


TEST in 


3 


12.3 


28.2 


2.5 








4 


14.9 


50.1 


6.7 


5.6 





6 


18.1 


59.3 


9.8 


9.9 





6 


20.5 


68.5 


13.8 


11.9 


— 


7 


28.8 


75.2 


18.3 


15.3 


— 


8 


23.9 


83. 


21.3 


18.7 


22.1 


9 


20.4 34.0* 


87.8 


14.2 23.7* 


22.2 


24.5 


10 


20.1 33.5* 


92.7 


16.7 27.8* 


— 


29.2 


11 


20.2 33.7* 


97.7 


17.7 29.5* 


— 


33.5 


12 


18.5 30.8* 


95.7 


16.8 28.0* 


— 


29.6 



•Smaller values, actual scores made in three minutes; larger values, scores computed 
on basis of five minutes, the standard time allowance, 
t Disagreement due to difference in method of tabulation. 

This table is to be read as follows: The third grade children in the 
Kansas Silent Reading Tests attempted 12.3 points in the time allowed^ 
of which 28.2 per cent, were correct. The score of this grade computed 
in the manner provided by Kelly is 2.5 points. The score of the ninth 
grade in Test I was 20.4 points attempted in three minutes, from which 
the amount that would have been done in five minutes, the time allowed 
the lower grades, was computed to be 34.0 points. The accuracy of 
the ninth grade was 87.8 per cent. The score of the ninth grade as 
determined in the manner provided in the instructions, 14.2 points 
right in three minutes, or 23.7 points right in five minutes. In Test 
II it was 22.2 points right in five minutes, and in Test III it was 24.5 
points right in five minutes. The three scores 23.7, 22.2, and 24.5 
show how correctly the three tests have been weighted to give scores of 
equal value. 




288 THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 49 
Development in Rate and Accuracy — Kansas Silent Reading 

Tests 

AccuKACY KANSAS READING TE5T5 

RELATION BETWEEN RATI AND ACCU15.ACY 
80- 



40 



•RATE 
5 10 15 20 Z5 30 

The scale along the base of the figure shows the number of points tried. 
The scale along the vertical axis shows the per cent, the points right are 
of the points tried. The position of the various grade median scotes is 
shown by the figures on the curve. 

Ability to read the simple material in the test devised for the third 
grade develops quite regularly through the seventh grade. The eighth 
grade has a score which is greater in accuracy only. The high school 
grades are very much higher in rate and somewhat higher in accuracy. 
The break between the eighth and ninth grades is probably due in part to 
the selective action of promotion to high school upon ability and in 
part to the fact that in these grades it was necessary to stop the tests 
at the end of three minutes and compute the score that would have been 
made in five minutes. The curve for the development of reading ability 
in Gary is of quite the conventional type. 



READING :289 

Figure 50 

Development in Accuracy — Kansas Silent Reading Tests 

(Conventional Scores) 

T&STi TE5T 2 1151 3 



30- 



20 



10- 




CBACBXCBACBACB^CBACBA 

2345 i 7 S 9 

GRAPES 



The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The vertical 
scale represents the score in Kansas Silent Reading Tests as determined 
from the right answers according to the standard instructions. The solid 
Une represents Gary; the dotted line, scores made by about 9,000 chil- 
dren in 19 cities in Kansas. 

The Gary results are lower than the Kansas results in grades three, four, 
and five, and equal to the Kansas results in grades six, seven, eight, and 
nine, and are very much above the Kansas results in other high school 
years. 

than in the conventional schools, but by the seventh and 
eighth grades the handicap of the late start has been over- 
come. The scores in high school years at Gary are equal 



290 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 291 

to or much greater than the corresponding scores in other 
cities, although the data for this statement are less com- 
plete than for the comparisons in the other grades 
(twelfth grade 29.6, median of country 29.7). As meas- 
ured by the Kansas Reading Tests, the eighth grade 
product of the instruction in reading in the grades at 
Gary is equal to that of the conventional school. 

TRABUE LANGUAGE SCALES 

The Trabue Language Scales consist of ten sentences 
differing in complexity, in which one or more words are 
missing. Children are asked to supply the missing 
words. Three representative sentences are shown in 
Figure 51, page 292. From these it may be seen that 
the Trabue Test measures a complex of many abilities, of 
which reading is but one. 

The scales are issued in the form of four tests, known 
respectively as B, C, D, and E. A child is given as 
much time as he needs and his score does not show the 
amount of work done in this time, but the difficulty of 
the most difl&cult sentence that he is able to complete. 
Thus except for certain minor irregularities in scoring im- 
perfect answers, a child who is able to complete correctly 
sentence 2 in Figure 51 would be given a score of 10, while 
a child who was able to complete correctly sentence 3 in 
Figure 5 1 would be given a score of 20. Sentence 3 is twice 
as hard as sentence 2 in terms of the units adopted for 
measurement of the difficulty of these sentences. The 
score of a class, therefore, is to be interpreted in terms 



292 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

not of amount of work, but of the degree of difficulty 
of sentence which the class is able to solve correctly 
without regard to the time required. It is perfectly 
possible, however, to u^e the Trabue Tests as rate tests 
and determine the rate and accuracy of work in order 
to secure a different type of information about the de- 
velopment of the abihties represented by these tests. 
At Gary Scales B and C were given under standard 
conditions, and Scales D and E were given under a 
time limit (two minutes) . 

Figure 51 
Illustrative Sentences, Teabue Language Scale C 

Typic.\l Correct 
SENTENCES Answers 

1. The sky blue. (is) 

2. The rises the morn- 

ing and at night. (sun, in, sets) 

3. One ought to great care 

to the right of 

, for one who bad (take, form, 

habits it to get kind, habits, 

away from them. forms, finds, 

difficult) 

The median eighth grade child at Gary has an ability 
represented by a score of 14.0 in Scales B and C, or 
of 12.9 and 12.3 respectively in Scales D and E when 
given under limited time conditions. Considering the 
entire range of scores from 6.5 for the third grade to 



READING 293 

16.0 at the twelfth grade, the value which best represents 
eighth grade ability is probably 13.6 (Table LXX, page 
294) . The development in the lower grades is rapid (from 
6.5 at the third grade to 8.5, or 2.0 points increase at the 
fourth grade) and gradually decreases as the upper grades 
are reached (eighth to ninth grade difference, .7 ; eleventh 
to twelfth grade difference, .5). The development is, 
therefore, of the conventional type (Figure 52, page 295). 

COMPAEATIVE DATA^ 

A comparison of the Gary scores with the standards 
published by Trabue shows almost perfect correspondence 
at all grades (third grade difference, Gary, +.5; eighth 
grade difference, +.3; twelfth grade difference, — .2). 
The differences are sometimes positive and sometimes 
negative and are insignificant in amounts. Comparisons 
with such other scores as are available show the Gary 
scores slightly lower (eighth grade comparisons, Gary — 
Detroit, — 2.4; Gary — Chatham, — 2.1; Gary — ^Nassau 
County, — .4). Table LXXI, page 296.) On this basis 
the Gary schools would be judged slightly^ below conven- 
tional schools in the products measured by these scales. 

SCHOOL TO SCHOOL COMPARISONS 

Rather marked differences in reading abihty from 
school to school are evident. Thus, in oral reading the 
Emerson School is distinctly better than the other three 
schools. In silent reading the Froebel and Beveridge 

^See page 38. 

^See footnote, page 296. 



294 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

TABLE LXX 

Scores in Trabue Language Scales 

Scales B and C given under standard conditions. Scales D and E 
given on a two minute time allowance instead of a seven minute al- 
lowance. 



GENERALIZED 
GARY SCORE 



3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



SCALE 


SCALE 


SCALE 


SCALE 


B 


C 


D 


E 


6.3 


6.7 


5.5 


5.1 


8.5 


8.8 


8.2 


8.3 


10.2 


10.2 


9.7 


9.9 


10.7 


10.9 


10.7 


10.7 


12.9 


12.5 


12.6 


11.7 


14.0 


14.0 


12.9 


12.3 


14.4 


13.9 


13.8 


12.7 


15.4 


14.0 


13.5 


14.4 


15.3 


16.0 


14.7 


14.4- 


16.2 


15.5 


14.4 


14.5 



6.5 
8.5 
9.9 
11.2 
12.5 
13.6 
14.3 
14.9 
15.5 
16.0 



The table is to be read as follows: The median third grade score 
in Scale B was 6.3; in Scale C, 6.7; in Scales D and E, given under 
limited time conditions, 5.5 and 5.1 respectively. Considering the 
entire range of grade scores in Scales B and C, 6.5 has been set as best 
representing third grade development. 

schools read more rapidly than the other two, but in the 
reproduction test the Beveridge School falls much be- 
low those of the other three. As measured by the 
Kansas Silent Reading Test, the Jefferson School makes 
the best showing, with the Emerson a close second. Both 
the Froebel and the Beveridge schools have many low 
scores. In the scores from the Trabue Language Scales 
the differences are less marked. Froebel is again distinctly 
below the level of the Emerson and Jefferson, but the Bev- 
eridge does not differ markedly from them. It is probable, 



READING 295 

Figure 52 
Development of Abilities — ^Trabtte Language Scales 







THE GARY SURVEY 




tita«L. 


riTY T...N.« TPATMJF t ANfillAnF Ar ^I f A 


15- 






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CBACBACUACBACBACDACIA 

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 n 

GRADES 

The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
along the vertical axis indicates the median degree of development 
attained in Trabue units. The solid line, Gary. The broken line, 
Trabue Standard. The dotted line, actual score of Tests B and C. 

The Gary children do quite as well as, or a little better than, children 
in other schools, according to Trabue's Standard. 

therefore, that the differences summarized in Table 
LXXII, page 298, represent merely the effect of foreign 
parentage rather than any significant difference due to 
the extent to which the schools afford modern programs. 

*See footnote on page 296. 



296 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 






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READING 



297 



TRABUE LANGUAGE SCALE B 
Median Scores Grades^ 



Trabue Standard . . . 



Omaha (January) 



Louisville (White) .... 

St. Paul 

Rochester, N. Y 

Horace Mann School 
(Columbia University) 
Pacific School-Seattle. 

Nassau Co., N. Y 

Janesville, Wis 

Mobile, AJa 

Chatham, N. J 

Deadwood, S. Dak. . . . 
Muscatine, la. (Janu- 
ary) 

Cherokee, la 

Washington, la. (June) 
Webster City, I.. 

(March) 

Storm Lake, la. (Nov.) 

Sutherland, la 

Gary 



5th 



11.4 
5A-11.1 
5B-11.6 

11.0 

5A-10.9 

5B-11.0 

12.4 

li.l 

11.55 



10.9 

11.3 
11.7 
11.7 
11.0 

10.9 
10.9 
12.3 

11.8 
11.4 
11.3 
10.2 



6th 



12.4 
6A-12.2 
6B-12.6 

12.4 

6-A12.4 

6-B12.5 

13.5 

12.2 

12.57 



12.1 
12.4 
12.8 
12.7 
12.2 
12.8 

12.2 
12.7 
13.4 

12.6 
12.9 
13.4 
10.7 



7th 



13.4 
7A-13.1 
7B-13.6 

13.4 

7A-13.3 

7B-13.6 

14.4 

13.1 

14.37 

16.2 
13.3 

13.6 
13.9 
14.8 
13.0 

13.1 
14.0 
14.0 



13 
13 
13 
12, 



8th 



14.4 
8A-14.1 
8B-14.6 

14.7 

8A-14.7] 

8B-14.8 

15.3 

14.0 

14.75 

17.1 
13.7 
14.0 
14.3 
14.4 
15.8 
13.3 

14.3 
14.4 
14.4 



14 
13 
14 
14. 



iFrom Bulletin of Department of Educational Research, Om^ha, Neb. 



§2. Critical Discussion 



GRi\Y S ORAL READING SCALE 

A consideration of each of the various reading tests 
is now in order, the first of which is Gray's Oral Reading 
Scale. No discussion of the methods by which the scale 



298 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



TABLE LXXII 
School to School Comparisons 

Number of Classes Whose Scores Vary from the City Wide Grade 
Median More Than One Tenth the Generalized Score 



Oral Reading 


Silent Reading — Story 


gray's scale 


RATE OF 
SILENT READING 


RATE OF 
REPRODUCTION 


SCHOOL 


TOTAL 
NO. OF 

CLASSES 


4- 

7 
5 
2 
2 


7 
1 
3 
2 


TOTAL 
NO. OF 

CLASSES 


+ 


- 


TOTAL 
NO. OF 
CLASSES 


+ 


- 


Froebel 
Emerson 
Jefferson 
Beveridge 


28 
12 
16 
11 


32 
18 
18 
17 


9 
4 
4 
5 


3 
6 

7 
5 


32 
18 
18 
17 


7 
2 
2 
2 


5 
3 
1 

8 


KANSAS silent READING TEST 


TRABUE LANGUAGE SCALE 


SCHOOL 


TOTAL 

NO. or 

CLASSES 


+ 

6 

6 

10 

3 


15 
1 
1 
9 


TOTAL NO. or 
CLASSES 

1, 


+ 


- 


Froebel 
Emerson 
Jefferson 
Beveridge 


30 
15 
16 
15 


22 
11 
16 
13 



3 
4 
3 


6 

2 
2 



This table is to be read as follows: In the Froebel school, of 28 classes 
tested in oral reading, 7 classes had scores markedly above the city wide 
medians and 7 classes had scores markedly below. In rate of silent 
reading, of 32 classes tested, 9 had scores markedly above the city wide 
medians and 3 below. In rate of reproduction, of 32 classes tested, 
7 had scores markedly above the city wide medians and 5 below. In 
the Kansas Silent Reading Tests, of 30 classes tested, 6 had scores mark- 
edly above the city wide medians and 15 below. In the Trabue Lan- 
guage Scale, of 22 classes tested, none had scores markedly above the 
city wide medians and 6 below. 



READING 299 

was derived or of the principles upon which it is based is 
necessary, as the same are available elsewhere.^ 

There are, however, certain criticisms of the scale 
itself and certain points connected with its use at Gary 
which the reader should know. 

Gray's Oral Reading Scale as given at Gary measures 
the ability to " sound" connectedly and correctly the 
words in a given passage. It does not measure expression 
nor does it measure understanding. The attempt was 
made to have the examiner record his judgment as to the 
quality of the expression in the reading, but it was found 
impossible to compare expression with a standard, except 
on the most intangible and subjective basis. The ex- 
aminers soon decided their records were so unreliable as 
to be worthless, and the practice was discontinued. 

It is possible to ask a child to reproduce orally or in 
writing what -has been read, or to answer questions in 
regard to the same. However, this was not attempted 
systematically at Gary. The scale thus affords merely 
a measure of the child's performance in oral reading. If 
he mispronounces words, omits words, or adds to the 
text, if he repeats, or otherwise misreads, the errors take 
away from his score. The giving of the test is well 
standardized and there are adequate and reliable com- 
parative data. As a whole, therefore, the test is a satis- 
factory measure of skill in oral reading, so far as that skill 



^Gray, W. S., Studies of Elementary School Reading through Stan- 
dardized Tests. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. i, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press. 



300 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

is defined as ability to pronounce words correctly and in 
proper sequence. 

One limitation of the scale is that the causes of the 
increasing difficulty from paragraph to paragraph are 
not known and may be due to factors not vitally con- 
nected with reading ability. A single illustration will 
make this plain. Paragraphs 2, 3, and 4 have for the 
first word " once " ; " Once there was," " Once there were," 
"Once there lived." Paragraph 5, however, begins 
"One of the most interesting birds." Child after child 
influenced by the preceding paragraphs begins: "Once 
of the." Thus in class No. 11 Jefferson, out of 40 
children, 5 missed on this particular point. Tabula- 
tion of other classes 3delded similar results. In general, 
one child in 10 is so susceptible to the habit forming 
influence of the succession of "onces" that he will mis- 
read "one" in paragraph 5. In other words, in working 
with the scale one gains the impression that the difficulty 
of certain paragraphs of the scale is in part caused by 
the occurrence of certain traps or pitfalls, rather than 
by real increases in the difficulty of the reading. This 
is due, of course, to the empirical basis on which the 
selection of the paragraphs rests. 

On the other hand, an inspection of the scale shows 
that there is in general a real increase in difficulty of vo- 
cabulary, in length of sentence, in difficulty of sentence 
structure, and in content of material. 

The length of the sentences in the various paragraphs 
increases from 7 words to 23, but the increase is 



READING 301 

irregular (Table LXXIII, page 302). A word, however, 
is a poor unit to use in measuring length of sentence as 
words vary so in size. A better unit would seem to be 
"sound divisions" or syllables. A syllable in the con- 
ventional sense means merely a group of letters. Sylla- 
bles are not always sounded. Thus "dressed," a 
two syllable word on the basis of spelling, is pronounced 
as though it were spelled "drest"; that is, as a single 
sound unit. The term "sound division" or "sound 
unit" will be used to indicate that words have been 
divided in accordance with their pronunciation, and 
not in accordance with their spelling. 

From the point of view of such sound division, the 
sentence length varies from an average of 8 to over 
45 units, but again the increase is irregular. To say 
that a child can read one paragraph but cannot read 
the next higher one is to indicate but roughly the length 
of sentence which he can read. In future improvements 
of the scale attention will need to be given to a more 
careful gradation of sentence length from paragraph to 
paragraph. 

In similar fashion it was found that a word of six 
sound divisions occurs in paragraphs 10 and 11, while 
paragraph 2 has but five words of more than a single 
sound. Roughly, therefore, the paragraphs increase 
in difficulty because of the increase in the length of the 
words as well as the length of the sentence, but for this 
factor also the increase is irregular (Table LXXIV, page 

303)- 



302 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

TABLE LXXIII 
Analysis of Gray's Oral Reading Scale 



PARAGRAPH 

NUMBER 


NUMBER 

OF 
SENTENCES 

IN 
PARAGRAPH 


NUMBER 

OF 
WORDS 


NUMBER 
OF SOUND 
DIVISIONS 


AVERAGE 

WORDS 

PER 

SENTENCE 


AVERAGE 

SOUNDS 

PER 

SENTENCE 


1 


7 


48 


55 


6.9 


7.9 


2 


6 


49 


54 


8.1 


9.0 


3 


5 


49 


61 


9.8 


10.2 


4 


6 


61 


72 


10.1 


12.0 


5 


3 


60 


75 


20.0 


25.0 


6 


4 


62 


81 


15.5 


20.2 


7 


3 


53 


74 


17.7 


24.7 


8 


4 


54 


89 


13.5 


22.2 


9 


4 


52 


82 


13.0 


20.5 


10 


5 


46 


85 


9.2 


17.0 


11 


2 


47 


89 


23.5 


44.5 


12 


2 


38 


91 


19.0 


45.5 



This table is to be read as follows: In paragraph i of Gray's Oral 
Reading Scale there are 7 sentences containing a total of 48 words. In 
reading these words orally there are 55 separate sound syllables or di- 
visions. (See Test.) That is, the average length of a sentence is 6.9 
words or 7.9 sounds. 

As a whole, the table shows that the average length of the sentences 
in words increases irregularly from the beginning to the end of the scale; 
that in terms of the number of sound divisions the average length also 
increases irregularly. 

The vocabulary also increases in difficulty from para- 
graph to paragraph. The various words new to each 
paragraph are shown in Table LXXV, between pages 304 
and 305. Unfortunately, there is no information as to 
the relative frequency of occurrence of words in children's 
reading vocabularies, so that it is impossible to evaluate 



READING 



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304 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

the difficulty of the paragraphs from this point of view. 
However, in each paragraph the children are called upon 
to read 24 or 25 new words^ and these words are, in 
general, increasingly longer and less common from para- 
graph to paragraph. 

The analysis will not be pushed further. Enough 
has been said to show the incompleteness of our knowl- 
edge of the causes of the increase in difficulty from para- 
graph to paragraph. Nevertheless, in the opinion of 
the author, Gray's Scale is one of the most satisfactory 
of the various measuring scales and is probably as per- 
fect as it can be made on the basis of present knowledge. 

A drawback in the use of the Gray Scale is that 
children must be measured individually, so that the 
measurement of a school system requires a great deal 
of time. For this reason, in certain grades at Gary only 
selected children were measured. The method of sam- 
pling was as follows: 

For all grades from two to eight inclusive the teachers 
of reading were asked to fill out for each child in the class 
a judgment card like that shown in Figure 53, page 305. 
In grades three, five, and seven practically all the children 
were tested. In the other grades 10 children were chosen 
from each class — the 3 given the highest marks by the 
teacher, the 3 lowest, and the 4 nearest the center of the 
class. In all 1557 children were examined. 

This method of measurement by sampling is open to 
question. If 10 children are chosen from a class of 

^Median values. 



PARAGRAPH 1 



a — C 

after 2 1 

began 2 L 

boy 2F 

cannot. . . . — J 

cry 2 — 

dog 2— 

. 2B 



had., 
he... 
home. 
I. ... 
into., 
little, 
my. . 
ran. . 
said., 
to. . . 
the. . . 
then. . 

wanted... . 

without. . . 3 K 
woods 2 — 



. 2G 

. 2E 

. 2H 

. 2H 

. 3F 

. 2E 

. 2E 

. 2— 

■ 2 J 

. 2H 

. 2D 

. 2H 



PARAGRAPH 2 



and 2 B 

can 2 C 

day 2H 

do 2 A 

feet 2 1 

four 2 L 

his 2H 

in 2D 

lived 2— 

mother. . . . 2 G 

once 2 L 

one 2H 

pen 2 — 

pig 2— 

ran 2 H 

round 2 K 

run 2 C 

saw 2 J 

so 2D 

them 2 H 

there 2 N 

was 2 H 

what 2 I 

with 2 J 

you 2E 



TABLE LXXV 
_]^;^^^^^-----_PA^^ A..x:oKA. WoRns ™ Oxkkr Paraokaphs-Grav's Ora. ^^^. Sca.k 



PARAGRAPH 3 



agam. . . 


.. 2M 


bit 


.. 2— 


bring. . . 


.. 2H 


cat 


. . 2— 


give. . . . 


..2 1 


house. . . 


.. 2H 


long. . . . 


.. 2H 


me 


.. 2A 


milk. . . . 


. . 2— 


mouse. . . 


. . 2— 


mouse's. 


. . 2— 


no 


. 2D 


not 


. 2E 


off 


. 2M 


pray. . . . 


. 2— 


puss 


. 


same. . . . 


. 2 1 


some. . . . 


. 2H 


taU 


. 2— 


they. . . . 


. 2K 


till 


. 2— 


were .... 


. 2L 


will 


. 2E 


your. . . . 


. 2F 



paragraph 4 



at 

beautiful. 

but 

children. . 

door 

found .... 
garden. . . 

girl 

happy 

King 



made. . 
or. .... 
own. . . 
palace. . 
poor. . . 

Queen 4 — 

their 2 Q 

took 2M 



— B 
3P 
2F 
2— 
2H 
2 J 
2— 
2 J 
2 J 
2— 
2 J 
2 J 
2 I 
2L 
7— 
2K 



paragraph 5 



as 2 H 

been 2 N 

before 2 L 

blue- jay.. . 

birds 2 — 

bird-room. — — 



business, 
could, 
ever. . 
fly.... 
from. , 
fuU. . . 
given. 



4T 
2K 
— L 
2— 
2 J 
2K 
3— 



mterestmg 

Jackie. .. . 

morning. .. 2 L 

most 2 J 

named, 
nest. . 
night. . 

of 

pet. . . 

reared. . . . — • — • 

scarcely. . . 

still 2 J 

stolen — ■ — 

which 2P 



2— 
2K 
2F 
2-=. 



paragraph 6 



almost 3M 

appear — O 

better 2K 

blackberrying . . 

by — G 

does 2 P 

else 2N 

enjoyed — P 

farming 

fishing 2 — 

good 2E 

industrious 5 — 

liked 2 F 

making 2 — 

maple 6 — 

part 2 J 

reason 4 N 

someone 

sort 5— 

sugar 2 — 

than 2 I 

that 2 H 

this 2F 

very 2 I 

why 2 J 

work 2 J 

yet 2 1 



paragraph 7 



agamst 2R 

are 2 G 

behind 2 K 

brilliancy 

contrast 

dull 2— 

embraced 

evenings 4 N 

evident • 

glow 

its 2 J 

hght — K 

magnificent . . . . 

mountains 2M 

masses 

only 2 K 

pretty 2M 

region 7 Q 

sky 2— 

such 2 L 

sun 2 — 

sunk 2 — 

stood 2M 

third 2L 

those 2M 

twilight 7— 

white 2 1 

wonderful 6 Q 



paragraph 8 



an 2E 

crown 3 — 

dignifying 

every 2 J 

exalting 

exercises 5 — 

forms 5 I 

general 6 R 

glory 

goodwill 

greater 

honor 7R 

itself — N 

life — J 

man 2D 

means 

noblest 

position — Q 

possession 

power 8 L 

rank 7 — 

securing • 

society 7— 

station 40 

useful 2 — • 

valuable ■ — • — 

wealth 8— 



paragraph 9 



although — Q 

apart 

appearance 8 — 

approximately . 

blue 2 J 

body 3 L 

complexion 8 — 

covered 2 J 

dressed 2 — 

early 2 L 

eyes 2 K 

far 2 I 

florid — — 

forehead 4 — 

habitually ■ 

hair 2— 

inclined 

left 2 J 

neat 2 — 

profusion 

proportioned. . . 

remarkably .... — ■ — 

scrupulous'if . . . 

six ■. 2 F 

tent 

well 2H 



paragraph 10 



3U 



always 2 N 

attentively . . . . 

contemptuous. . 

continuously. . . 

exhausted 8 — 

exigencies 
finally. . . . 

grim • 

habit 4— 

happens 2M 

hesitated 

impulse 

ingratiatingly . . — ■ — 

Josephus 

length 4B 

listened 2 — 

loss — B 

lost 2 J 

old 2 E 

others — H 

persistently . . . . ■ 

responding 

silence 

spoke 2 — 

strength 6 — 

through 2 



paragraph 11 



alluvian . . 
American . 
antique . . 
antiquities, 
archaeological, 
architectural 
architecture . 
attractions. . 

azure 

dehght .... 
deposits . . . 
Egypt..... 
fanaticism . 
fondness. . . 

have 

Italy 

unto 

overcome .. 
prairies. . . . 
Roman .... 

skies 

studies. ... 
verges 



2G 



.. 3— 
.. 2— 



paragraph 12 



accurate 7 — 

applicable 

arduously 

be 2F 

combine 

concerning 

established . ... 

forces 

formulated . ...—- — 

hypothesis 

inconsistent. . . . 

mathematicians. 

phenomena . . . . 

philosophers . . . 

physical 8 — 

physicists 

principles 6 Y 

proved 2 N 

relatively 

statisticians. . . . 

universally 8 — 



The relative difficulty of the different words in the various paragraphs may be judged from the figures and letters which are placed after them. These are to be interpreted as folloiv. figures refer to the grade to which the word is assigned by Jones; the letters refer 
to the division of the Ayres Spelling Scale in which the word is found. A dash means that the word does not occur in these lists. tj. f • fi, rftr. it of thp 

bets A to L of the Ayres Scale are considered second grade words although set L is spelled on the average with but fifty per cent, accuracy by second grade children. Set A, on the other i land, is speUed with ninety-nme per cent, accuracy. Itiat is, tne mtncuity 
™Tk ^ ^P^^^S (and therefore probably also in reading) increases from set to set as the set letter is later in the alphabet. 

The table makes it evident that the increase in the difficulty of the words from paragraph to paragraph is irregular. 



READING 

FlGUIUE ss 

Teachers' Judgment Caeds 



30s 



EMERSON 


TEACHERS JUDGMENT CARD '^ Reading 


Instructions; Indicate by a check mark the items on 


the opposite side of this card which express your judg- 


ment of the ability in reading of the pupil whose name 


appears below. Express the general mark in per cent. 


Namft of Pupil ^^ ^<\^'^' icIi^-hSA,^. Grade ^ /^<. 


Name of Teacher ^7].^r^ , '^rr^f - ^ 'Subject S^ijuCcL^Ci'. ^ 


The Gary Public Schools 


Check the items which apply 


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Cards were filled out by the teachers for each individual child in grades 
2 to 12. Selection of children to be measured by Gray's Oral Reading 
Scale was made on the basis of the marks shown on these cards. Ten 
children were chosen from each class, the group being composed of the 
three having the highest rating, the three having the lowest rating, and 
the four of average ability. In grades 3, 5, and 7, practically all the 
other children in the classes were measured as well. 



3o6 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

40, the class will be misrepresented by the resulting 
score based upon the performances of the 10 children, 
unless the teacher's judgment is reliable. In grades 
three, five, and seven practically the full class member- 
ship (except for absence) was measured in each class, 
although the scores were tabulated in groups of 10 as in 
other grades. This makes it possible to determine the 
extent to which the method of sampling is valid. 

It was found that the differences between the scores 
made by all the children in a class and by the selected 
group were small, averaging 3 points. This is less 
than the usual error of measurement (Table LXXVI, 
page 308). 

The examiners at Gary were the writer and his assist- 
ants and six graduate students from Professor Gray's 
own classes in the University of Chicago. These latter 
were trained in the use of the scale by Professor Gray 
himself. As a further precaution a large part of the 
first day's scoring was done in duplicate. That is, as 
a child read from the scale, two examiners made inde- 
pendent records, and after the child had left the room 
the two records were compared and doubtful entries 
discussed. 

A study of these duphcate scores makes it plain that 
the use of the scale leads to consistent records of children's 
performances. (Tables LXXVII and LXXVIII, pages 
309-310). In 21 per cent, of the cases the two records 
agreed exactly; in 70 per cent, of the cases the differencea 
were 2.5 points or less (about half a year's growth), 



READING 307 

and in only 6 per cent, was the .difference greater 
than 5 points. There were differences in the close- 
ness of the agreement between the records of the vari- 
ous pairs of judges, and, in general, those who had had 
the most experience in the use of the scale had the most 
consistent records. None of the five pairs of judges had 
an average difference of as much as 3 points. The results 
may, therefore, be accepted as revealing the true abihties 
of the children within a half grade. In this test, as else- 
where, the class averages, as determined by two indepen- 
dent observers, differ by very small amounts. 

In making the comparisons noted above it was found 
that there were often marked disagreements as to the 
actual mistakes made, particularly when the number of 
mistakes was large, but usually close agreement as to 
the number of mistakes. Two sets of independent rec- 
ords are given in Figure 54, pages 312-313. For para- 
graph 3, the two records agree; for paragraph 5 there is 
a disagreement of 2 seconds in the time records and of i 
error in the mistakes. In both will be found differences 
in the manner in which the mistakes were recorded. As, 
however, six is the maximum number of mistakes, that 
can be made and have the performance count at all, the 
differences are not serious and, as has been shown, do 
not affect many scores. On the other hand, they in- 
validate the records so far as types of mistakes are con- 
cerned and no such analyses were attempted. 

The method of scoring adopted by Professor Gray 
3delds approximately constant scores from grade to grade. 



3o8 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 311 

Thus the fourth and fifth grades at Gary made an aver- 
age score of 39. This does not mean that they have the 
same abihty; it means merely that the fourth grade is as 
near the fourth grade standard as the sixth grade is near 
the sixth grade standard. To indicate the progress 
from "grade to grade it is necessary to convert the actual 
scores into relative scores by adding 20 points to the 
second grade score and 5 points additional, the average 
yearly progress, for each grade above the second. In 
the form of graph adopted by Professor Gray this allow- 
ance is made by shifting the grade scales. If, however, 
the Gary grade averages were reduced to units on a single 
scale with an arbitrary zero point, the scores would have 
the values shown in Table LXXIX. 

TABLE LXXIX 

Gary Results, Gray's Oral Reading Scale, Expressed in Terms 
OF A SmGLE Uniform Scale 

GRADE 



2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


27 

47 


36 
61 


39 
69 


39 

74 


41 
81 


42 
87 



Gary Average 27 36 39 39 41 42 41 

Gary Values on a uniform scale. . . 47 61 69 74 81 87 91 



In Figure 46, Section I, of this chapter the scale along 
the vertical axis enables the conventional graph to be 
read in terms of a single scale. 

It will be noted that the increase in score from grade 
to grade is small (5 points after the second grade). The 
conventional method of scoring obscures this fact as all 
grades make nearly the same score, and within each 



312 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 54 
Agreement and Disagreement in Scoring of Two Judges 

Judge A 
Paragraph 3 

Once there were a cat and a mouse. 
They lived in the same house. The cat 
bit off the mouse'(|) tail. 'Tray, pussM- 
said the mouse, "'give me my long tail 
again," 

**No" said the cat, *i will not give- 
you your tail till you bring me some 
milk." 

Paragraph s 

One of the most interesting.birds whichever 
lived in my bird-room was a^ffiS^^y named J' 
Jacl^^ He was full of business from morning 
till night, scarcel y f ver still. He had been stolei*. 
from a nest long before he could fly, and he had 
been reared in a house long before he had been 
given to me a5 aj»et. 



READING 313 

Judge B 
Paragraph 3 

iS seco)i^s 3 3 >n urates. 

if 

Onc^ there were a eat and a mousei 

They Kved in the same house?. The cat 
bit off the mouse(s)taiL *'Pray, puss,^ 
said the mouse, *'give me my long tail 
agaiijf/* 

'iJa- said the cat, **I will not give 
you your tail till you bring me some 
milk." 

Paragraph 5 

60 seconds 5 // Tnisf-^^es 

Q neoi the most interesting- birds whichever 
lived in my bird-room was a ^ aluo j ay named 
Jaci^ He was fall of bny^ine^ s from morning 
till night, s^c^jcglyVer still. He had been stole© 
from a nest long before he could fly, and he had 
been reared in a house long before he had been 
given to me as apet. 



In paragraph s, although the actual number of mistakes recorded dif- 
jers but i, the errors recorded are differently marked. 



314 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

grade the range of scores is large. For instance, in 
Froebel class No. 44 (seventh grade) the lowest individual 
score was 20, the highest 52. There were 4 scores in 
the twenties, 6 in the thirties, 16 in the forties, and 2 
in the fifties. In other words, the individual scores 
show a range of variation equal to more than six times 
the average yearly progress, yet the maximum differ- 
ence between the scores of the 24 seventh grade 
groups (of approximately ten children each) examined 
was 10.4 points. In other words, differences between 
scores of classes and of cities are much more significant 
than differences between individuals. The differences 
between the Gary and Grand Rapids scores, for instance, 
may be transformed into years of difference by dividing 
by 5. Whether or not differences between individual 
scores may be similarly transformed must await the 
evaluation of the results of repeated measurement of the 
same individual children from grade to grade. 

REPRODUCTION TESTS 

The reading and reproduction tests, as already pointed 
out, measure, on the one hand, rate of reading, and, on 
the other, a complex ability made up mainly of three 
elements — ability to comprehend something of what was 
read, abihty to remember the same for several minutes 
while engaged in reproducing it, and abihty to organize 
the words and ideas remembered into a connected story. 
Ability to read must be credited with a minor part in 
determininor a child's score. 



READING 315 

The rate of reading in itself is probably not a significant 
measure of anything. The range of variable perform- 
ance is so large that rate scores in such tests as were 
given at Gary are mere S3nTiptoms, that is, slight changes 
in the conditions or incentives to reading effort produce 
large variations. Inferences from symptoms are reliable 
only when the conditions which cause variation in the 
symptom are known. For instance, the rate of silent 
reading at Gary appears low in comparison with results 
from similar tests in other cities. So far as is known, 
there is nothing in the tests and the testing conditions 
which would cause this variation, and the results from 
two or three trials of different tests are consistent. Yet 
the same tests, as has been pointed out, bring to light 
very large individual variations. The causes of these 
are not known. The reader must be careful, therefore, 
to remember that while every precaution has been taken 
to make the data reliable, there is so much to be learned 
about reading ability that later investigations may 
prove present conclusions to have been unwarranted. 

Analysis of the reproductions, item by item, affords 
an opportunity for showing the manner in which the 
factor of memory operates. Certain subdivisions of the 
story were recalled by nearly all who read them. These 
elements form the gist of the story. Within each sub- 
division, however, there is marked decline of the fre- 
quency with which the various items were recalled, and, 
in general, the longer an item has to be remembered the 
less frequently it is recalled. That is, only children 



3i6 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 



317 



100 



Figure 55 
Relative Frequency of Recall 



RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF RECALL- REPRODUCTION 



NO OF 




ABC DEFGH I J KLMN0P0R.5TUVWXYZ 
THOUGHTS 



The scale along the base of the figure represents the various thought 
divisions in the key for scoring the reproduction test. The scale along 
the left hand vertical axis shows the per cent, of recall. "Number of 
cases" shows the average number of children recalling each of the thought 
groups. The grouping is on the basis of connected thoughts. For 
instance, thought divisions A, B, C, D, E, F, and G all have to do with 
the fact that Fred was late to breakfast. Solid lines show the relative 
frequency of recall for the various thoughts within each division. 

It should be noted that some thoughts are of more importance than 
others, that in general, the first thought in each division is the important 
one. The figure, as a whole, illustrates the part memory plays in deter- 
mining the material reproduced. 



3i8 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

with exceptional memories will reproduce the minor 
items of any main thought (Table LXXX, page 316, 
Figure 55, page 317). 

A careful analysis was made of the data from one of 
the major subdivisions, thoughts A to G, which tell 
about Fred's coming late to breakfast and the reason for 
his tardiness. Within each thought the items were 
further classified into groups on the basis of percentage 
of recall (Table LXXXI, between pages 318 and 319). 
A study of these results shows that it is the modifying 
ideas and the unusual words or unusual forms of expres- 
sion which are forgotten or avoided. For instance, sub- 
division B was the sentence : "So late, that all the other 
members of the family were through and had gone about 
their respective duties," and subdivision E: "Whereas 
he was usually in bed by nine." Only 26 per cent, of the 
children who reproduced some portion of thought B wrote 
"respective," and but 31 per cent, of those who repro- 
duced some part of thought E wrote "whereas." It 
would be pure assumption to say that only those who 
understood the meaning of these words reproduced them. 
Absolute proof is lacking that the selective action evident 
in the table may be attributed to memory, but the evi- 
dence is sufficiently clear to make it proper to question 
reproduction scores as measures of reading ability. 

RELATIVE RATES OF ORAL AND SILENT READING 

Closely connected with the measurement of rate of 
reading is the comparison of the rate of oral with the 



READING 319 

rate of silent reading. Such a comparison, however, 
is probably something quite different from what it ap- 
pears to be. Rate of oral reading is based upon the 
number of words read per unit of time, and rate of silent 
reading is based upon the number of words read per unit 
of time. In words these two statements appear to 
mean the same thing, but account must be taken of the 
differences in the activities connoted by the word 
"read." In oral reading, a word read means a word 
sounded; in silent reading, a word is read when it has 
been passed in the course of the reading activity. These 
two methods of reading have in common the movement 
of the eyes by which the various words are brought into 
view one after another, but in oral reading the limiting 
factor is the rapidity with which the words can be voiced, 
a muscular reaction, and in silent reading the limiting 
factor is the rapidity with which the words seen can be 
comprehended, a mental activity. The two activities 
really have nothing in common that may properly be 
compared, and the comparison is vaHd only in the 
sense of comparing the total material covered in a given 
time. For this purpose the word is as good a unit as 
any so long as the material is unselected, so that the 
average length of word is constant. But for Gray's 
Scale the average length of word is not constant. It 
varies from $.;^ letters per word in paragraph i to 6.7- 
letters per word in paragraph twelve. In terms of sylla- 
bles, or, better, "sound divisions," the average varies 
from 1.04 per word in paragraph 3 to 2.5 in paragraph 



320 THE GARY SCHOOLS, 

12. Moreover, the various sound divisions vary in 
length depending upon their position in the sentence and 
the necessity of prolonging them in critical positions to 
give the proper expression in reading. The number of 
pauses that must be made between sentences also afifects 
the rate at which the oral reading activity proceeds. 
The word is, therefore, very far from being a proper 
unit in which to express rate of oral reading when at- 
tempting to measure the rate at which the activity 
itself proceeds. For this reason, Gray's statement that 
"as the subject matter to be read increases in difficulty 
the rate of reading is decreased, although no errors may 
be made " is not true in so far as it rests upon the evidence 
of increasing time to read the more difficult paragraphs. 
For it is quite impossible to read paragraphs 2 and 12 
even after thorough study and preparation at such 
rates that their times will be proportional to the number 
of words they contain, provided both are read "nat- 
urally." For instance, the writer's time to read the 
49 words of paragraph 2 was 11.7 seconds, and 
for paragraph 12, which contains a smaller number 
of words (38), was 16.3 seconds. Expressed in terms 
of sound divisions the ratio of the two times would 
be 1.68, actually it is 1.39. The disagreement is due 
to the fact that allowances must be made for the 
number of pauses. The curve for the rate of oral reading 
based upon words read per minute is not a curve which 
expresses in any way the rate of development in the rate 
at which oral reading activity proceeds, unless in every 



READING 321 

case the identical material is read. For this reason the 
curve in Figure 45 is based upon the average rate for 
paragraphs i and 2 in every grade. The curve is vahd, 
therefore, for this material alone and may not represent 
the general development for rate of oral reading. 
. Neither is the rate of silent reading in words per minute 
a measure of that activity. The critical factor in deter- 
mining the rate of silent reading is the number and char- 
acter of the eye shifts or pauses. Material is not read 
word by word. The length of a word has little to do 
with the rapidity with which it is perceived. The num- 
ber of words read per minute of time is not a measure of 
the activity itself, only of its results. The curve for 
silent reading, therefore, does not represent the rate of 
development of that activity. It is extremely probable 
that when suitable studies have been made so that true 
development curves for these two rates of reading may be 
compared, the conclusions will be quite different from 
those suggested by the present rates of reading. 

For the present, the reader should understand that the 
two curves shown in Figure 47, page 278, yield a compari- 
son merely of the amount of material read in a given time. 
Such a comparison has a diagnostic value, however, for if 
children in one school system show relatively less differ- 
ence between the amount of material covered in a given 
time in oral and silent reading than children in other 
schools, it indicates a difference in the relative efficiency 
of the development of the two processes. However, 
nothing is known in regard to the way these curves would 



322 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

be altered by a change of material. The curves of other 
investigators have been based upon different material. 
Whether or not this alone is responsible for the differences 
in the Gary scores is not known. The Gary curves seem 
to represent a real and an unsatisfactory condition, but 
the reader should keep in mind the possibiHty (although 
not the probability) that the effect noted is due wholly 
to the use of faulty units of computing rate of reading. 

In this connection a second possibiHty must be consid- 
ered, the manner in which the rate of reading is computed. 
Gray used the harmonic mean^ in determining rate instead 
of the arithmetic mean, or the median used by Brown, 
Oberholtzer, Whipple, Courtis, and other investigators. 
The harmonic mean usually yields a smaller result, as 
Gray himself points out. The Gary rates are medians of 
actual rates. That is, in the Gary determinations of both 
oral and silent reading, the actual number of words read 
per minute by each child was computed from the time and 
the total words read, and the median of these rates was 
taken as the class score. In Gray's work, however, the 
times required to read one hundred words were averaged 
and the rate computed on the basis of the average time. 

An illustration will make the difference clear. For 
instance, if 

Child A read i6o words in 45 seconds, or 213 words in i minute 
" B " 105 " " 45 " " 140 " " I " 
" C " 150 " " 45 " " 200 " " I " 
" D " 289 " " 45 " " 385 " " I " 



^Gray, W. S., Studies of Elementary School Reading through Standard 
Tests, p. 105. 



READING 

the average rate would be 220 words per minute.^ 
from the same record it might be computed that 

Child A would read 100 words in 28. i seconds 



323 

But 



" B 
" C 
" D 




H 11 f( 

« (( tt 

It 11 n 


" 42.9 
" 30-0 ' 
" 15-6 ' 


" E 

All five 




(( it it 

" 500 " 


" 36.9 ' 
IS3-5 ' 



and the average time to read one hundred words, all five 
children reading simultaneously each his share, would 
be 30.7 seconds. 

If now the number of words that would be read in one 
minute is computed from the average time, the rate 
becomes 195 words per minute instead of 220 words 
per minute as above. Gray's rates of silent reading are, 
therefore, probably lower than other rates because of 
this difference in the method by which they are computed. 
The differences, that is, are favorable to Gary, and the 
maximum difference^ would amount to about nine words. 
The effect of this factor is probably negligible. However, 
the reader should note that the Gary results are presented 
as the central tendencies of the actual rates of reading 
(that is, the rate which is the most representative of the 
group) and not the time that would be required by the 
class to read the paragraph if each member of the class 
were to read a part, all reading for the same length of 
time, each at his own rate.^ 

^Median rate, 200 words per minute. 

^Judging from the data given on p. 113 of Gray's Monograph. 
^See also Seventeenth Yearbook, National Society for the Study of 
Education, page 125. 



324 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

KANSAS SILENT READING TESTS 

The Kansas Silent Reading Tests are of value because 
they measure a t3^e of ability that is extremely impor- 
tant in life, the ability to base action upon judgments in 
situations, information in regard to which has been ob- 
tained wholly through reading. The complex — reading 
judging, acting — brings into play a great number of 
separate abilities, very few of which are the direct prod- 
ucts of classroom training in reading. 

As the Kansas Reading Tests measure the perform- 
ance of individuals only in specific situations, any 
score based upon a single phase of the performance is 
incomplete. Accordingly, the Kansas Tests were scored 
also for amount attempted. In order that such rate 
scores might be comparable with the conventional 
results, the assigned values for each exercise were used 
as a basis. That is, a child's rate score was found by 
adding the assigned values of every exercise for which 
the child wrote an answer, whether the answers were right 
or not. Then, in certain grades, for each child the rela- 
tion between the conventional score and the rate score 
was expressed as a rate per cent. The Kansas Reading 
Tests thus yielded three sets of scores: (i) rate score, 
the number of points completed in a given time; (2) 
conventional score; the number of points allowed for 
correct answers; and (3) accuracy scores, the per cent, 
of the points attempted that were right. 

In most of the grades the accuracy scores were found 



READING 



32s 



TABLE LXXXII 

Comparative Results of Three Trials of the Kansas Silent 
Reading Tests ^ 



_ test ni 


MEDIAN 


median dev. 


total range 


Reg. Score Trial 1. . 
" " " 2. . 

Rate Trial 1 

" " 2. 

" " 3 

Accuracy Trial 1. .. 
" 2... 
" 3... 




23.2 
17.9 
21.8 
27.3 
22.3 
29.9 
86.0 
83.0 
80.0 


2.7 
4.8 
4.9 
4.8 
3.9 
4.9 
9.0 
10.0 
10.0 


12.3- 28.6 
4.6- 30.3 
7.0- 40.4 

14.2- 41.0 

15.4- 39.5 
16.4- 40.4 
38.0-100 
30 -100 
20 -100 



coefficient of correspondence 



Comparison of 
Reg. Score Test 1 with Reg. Score 2. 

<( It li 1 <( <( a o 

<< <( (( O (( <i II o 

Rate Test 1 " Rate " 2. 

<i (< 1 u It ii q 

3'. 

2. 
3. 
3. 



Accuracy Test 



Ace. 



40% 
36% 
45% 
60% 

57% 
57% 
48% 
38% 
31% 



iBased on the scores of 43 eighth grade pupils. 

This table is to be read as follows : 40 per cent, of the 42 eighth grade 
children were found to have maintained the same position in the group 
within one unit of variability when the conventional scores from Test I 
were compared with the conventional scores from Test II. The table 
shows that the correspondence is greatest between rate scores or scores 
for number of points attempted in a given time, and lowest for the 
accuracy scores, or the per cent, the points right were of the points 
attempted. 



326 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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READING 327 

by the approximate method adopted for the arithmetic 
tests. The record sheet was so arranged that the mere 
entry of the rate and conventional scores indicated the 
accuracy score without computation. As no com- 
parable data are available, it was not thought necessary 
to determine the size of the error in such short cut 
tabulations. It cannot be large and the method was 
used consistently. Small errors would have no influence 
in the general conclusions. 

As affording a slight indication of the reliability of 
the Kansas Tests, the coefiEicients of correspondence 
were computed for scores of the 42 eighth grade 
children present in all tests. The correspondence is 
greater for the rate scores than for either the accuracy 
or the conventional scores. A Httle more than half the 
children maintain the same relative position in the 
group within about 5 points for rate of work, while only 
approximately a third of the group maintain the same 
relative positions within 10 per cent, for accuracy 
and 5 points for the conventional score. (Table 
LXXXII, page 325.) 

These results mean that a single measurement of a 
child with the Kansas Tests does not yield very reliable 
information in regard to his abilities. He may do very 
much better or very much worse in a second measurement 
with a different test (Table LXXXIII, page 326). How 
much of this variation is an indication of the inefficiency 
of training and how much of it is due to the defects of 
the tests themselves cannot be told at present. 



328 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

The Kansas Reading Tests are interesting as throwing 
some light on the abihty of the Gary children to solve 
the conventional arithmetical problems. The exercises 
of this character are as follows: 

TEST I, EXERCISE XI 

"We planted three trees in a row. The first one was 
nine feet tall and the last one was three feet shorter than 
the first one. The middle one was two feet taller than 
the last one. How tall was the middle one? " 

(Assigned value, 2.2. Per cent, of eighth grade chil- 
dren missing, 28. Number of cases, 121.) 

TEST I, EXERCISE XV 

" Fred has eight marbles. Mary said to him : ' If you 
will give me four of your marbles, I will have three times 
as many as you will then have.' How many marbles 
do they both have?" 

(Assigned value, 4.8. Per cent, of eighth grade 
children missing, 44. Number of cases, 48.) 

TEST II, EXERCISE Xni 

"If it takes a man an hour to walk around a square, 
each side of which is a mile in length, how long will it 
take him to walk eight miles? " 

(Assigned value, 4.3. Per cent, of eighth grade chil- 
dren missing, 44. Number of cases, 16.) 



READING 329 

TEST m, EXERCISE III 

"I have five plums and Mary has four plums. Jane 
comes along and we see that she hasn't any. . . . 
We wanted to divide with Jane in such a way that we 
shall all three have the same number. I give Jane two 
plums. How many must Mary give her? " 

(Assigned value, 3.5. Per cent, of eighth grade chil- 
dren missing, 9. Number of cases, 131.) 

TEST in, EXERCISE V 

"A, B, C and D in the straight line represent four 
places lying in a straight line. From A to B is four 
miles, from C to D is seven miles, from A to D is fourteen 
miles. How far is it from B to C? " 

A B C D 

(Assigned value, 3.8. Per cent, of eighth grade chil- 
dren missing, 34. Nimiber of cases, 125.) 

TEST III, EXERCISE Vlll 

"There are three horizontal lines; the first is three 
inches in length, the second two inches, the third one 
inch. We know that if the second and third lines are 
joined end to end the resulting line will be as long as 
the first line. Suppose that the first and second lines 
are joined end to end. How many times as long as the 
third line will the resulting line be.^ " 



330 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

(Assigned value, 4.8. Per cent, of eighth grade chil- 
dren missing, 29. Number of cases, 82.) 

It will be observed that all of these are simple problems 
as far as the numerical relations are concerned. Exercise 
VIII contains a great many words, but in the others the 
problems are clearly stated, and the situations are within 
the experiences of the children. In Tests I and II the 
arithmetical problems come so late in the test that but 
relatively few of the children get to them and these, of 
course, are either the more able members of the class or 
those who worked at high rate with low accuracy. In 
Test III, however, practically the full class membership 
attempted problems 3 and 5. (Table LXXXIV, page 
332.) For Test III two other exercises which are non- 
mathematical have been included for comparison. For in- 
stance, number 4 was : " In the following words, find one 
letter which is contained in only three of them, and then 
cross out the word which does not contain that letter": 

ail thief live anvil 

The results show conclusively that many of the Gary 
eighth grade children are unable to solve simple arith- 
metical problems when presented in printed form and 
under test conditions (average accuracy, 6 problems, 
69 per cent.). On the other hand, it must be remembered 
that the Gary eighth grade scores in the Kansas Test are 
almost exactly at the Kansas standard, which is also the 
score made by many eighth grade classes in other cities. 



READING 331 

Comparative data for the number missing on the different 
exercises of the test are lacking. It may well be that the 
Gary children do as well with such problems as the chil- 
dren in the conventional schools. However, the results 
are presented for their absolute, not their comparative, 
value. The reader must judge for himself, therefore, 
whether the conditions revealed by the data above and 
in the tables are satisfactory. 

To the writer the results seem poor, but whether the 
difficulty is caused by poor training in reading or in 
arithmetic he cannot tell. He prefers, therefore, to take 
the position that reasoning abihty in arithmetic has not 
been measured at Gary, and to terminate this discussion 
with the repetition of the statement that the eighth 
grade children do as well in the Kansas Reading Tests 
as the children in many other cities. 

TRABUE LANGUAGE SCALES 

The Trabue Language Scales measure a very complex 
ability. Their author makes no claim that they measure 
reading abihty, but they are classed with the reading 
tests because reading abihty is one factor in determining 
a child's score. However, for these tests as for the 
Kansas Tests, while a child who cannot read cannot make 
a high score, a low score does not necessarily mean ina- 
bihty to read. 

If a child scans such a sentence as "The sky — blue," 
the word ''is" rises to consciousness spontaneously. 
The test is, therefore, in one aspect at least, a measure 



332 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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334 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

of a person's habits of association in connection with the 
use of words. When, however, one reads, "One ought 

to great care to the right of , for 

one who bad habits it to get away 

from them," much more ability is required to fill the 
blanks correctly than the mere possession of a given set 
of habitual associations, for the sentence has been so 
mutilated that there are few significant words to act as 
stimuH. "Take" or "exercise" suggests itself readily 
for the first blank, because "take care" is both said and 
heard frequently by all; but "right" is absolutely mean- 
ingless without some further cue, as it occurs with all 
sorts of words. So with certain others of the blanks. 
"Habits," however, stirs up a host of associations, and 
"get away from them" suggests habit formation and 
habit correction. With this cue as a basis, the intelligent 
child with sufficient initiative can go back to the other 
blanks and supply experimentally a whole series of 
words until a set is found which "makes sense." This, 
however, involves the exercise of several new ranges of 
information and power. In short, in these tests, reading 
is a very small factor and general intelligence (i. e. the 
ability to comprehend a situation and to bring all one's 
resources to bear upon it in an efficient manner in order 
to make an adjustment in it which shall fulfill a desired 
end) is the critical factor. Perhaps the best statement 
that can be made is that of the author: "Nothing is 
known about what the tests measure, except that in some 
way success is related to language work in school, and 



READING 335 

scores in the tests show a high correlation with general 
abiHty." 

The sentences composing the tests have been so chosen 
for difficulty that each is (approximately) as much easier 
than the one after it as it is more difi&cult than the one 
before it.^ In other words, the difficulty increases by 
unit amounts from sentence to sentence. A child's score 
in the test is not the amount done, but the difficulty of the 
hardest sentence he is able to complete. This fact is some- 
what obscured by the method of scoring, which allows two 
points for each perfect answer and one for imperfect but 
not incorrect answers; yet, in general, if a child com- 
pletes five sentences and receives a score of lo, the scores 
should be interpreted to mean that the child's develop- 
ment in abiHty to complete sentences has reached lo 
in an absolute scale ranging from zero to 20. Thus, 
the test serves to sort children into groups on the basis 
of their development. In the eighth grade at Gary, 
measured with Scale B, there were three children whose 
maximum ability was 6 units, one child whose maximum 
ability was 7 units, six children of 8 units ability, two 
children of 9 units ability, seven children of 10 units 
ability, six of ability 11, fourteen of ability 12, twenty one 
of ability 13, twenty six of ability 14, eighteen of ability 
15, eleven of ability 16, three of ability 17, and one of 



^For the details in regard to the tests and the methods by which the 
values of the different sentences were determined, the reader is referred 
to Teachers CoUege, Cohimbia University, Contributions _to Education 
No. 77. 



336 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 56 
Results of Measurement with Trabue Language Scale 



trabue: language scale b 




StNTENCE MO. 1 


6 


6 


zz 


^^ 


31 


25 


33 


+d 


54- 


WLUE,SCALE .S6 


»98 


£.<)*■ 


*.I6 


MO 


650 


lAZ 


842 


950 


1076 


" P0INT5 t 


♦ 


6 


8 


10 


iZ 


14 


<6 


•» 


to 



The sentences of different difSculty serve to sort the children on the 
basis of ability. The relative difficulty of the various sentences com- 
posing the tests represented by the lengths of the row of rectangles. The 
scale along the vertical axis shows the value of these lengths in terms of 
Trabue units. The figures on the arrows show the number of the 119 
eighth grade children tested who were able to complete each sentence, 
but not the next higher sentence. That is, 3 children were able to com- 
plete successfully the third sentence, but failed on the fourth and all 
sentences thereafter. 

The graph makes clear the great range of ability found in the eighth 
grade. This condition is not peculiar to Gary, however. 



READING 337 

ability i8 (Figure 56, page 336). That is, the 119 eighth 
grade children tested range in ability from Trabue's sixth 
grade standard to abilities higher than the twelfth grade 
standard. 

With the Trabue Scales, as with most of the other 
testa, the individual variation within a grade is very 
large, while the increase in score from grade to grade is 
very small (average, grades three to nine, 1.4 points). 
A year of school work produces very little change in 
the group abiHty, yet within any one class individual 
children vary almost from one extreme to the other. 
Therefore, the exact interpretation to be placed upon 
results from Trabue's Scale is a matter of some doubt. 
It is probable that they should be considered as affording 
a rehable basis for comparing the general intelligence 
or intellectual development of groups of children. 

At Gary Scales B and C were given and scored under the 
standard conditions set up by Trabue. Scales D and E 
were also given, but the time allowance was reduced from 
seven minutes to two minutes. It was thought that in 
this time a few of the brighter children would finish, 
but that most of the children would still be writing. 
That is, the attempt was made to change the test from a 
difficulty test to a rate test. The resulting grade scores 
were, however, but very slightly reduced, so that in 
effect there were four measurements of the Gary children 
with the Trabue Tests. An inspection of Table LXX, 
Section I, page 294, of this chapter will show that the 
grade scores are remarkably constant. That is, a single 



338 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 
TABLE LXXXV 



Comparative Results of Different Trials of Trabue Language 

Scales^ 



tests IV 


median 


MEDIAN DEVIATION 


TOTAL RANGE 


Trial B 


13 


2 


6-16 


" C 


13 


2 


8-18 


" D 


12 


2 


8-17 


" E 


12 


1 


5-16 



RATE AND ACCURACY FOR D AND E 



TRIAL 


MEDIAN 


MEDIAN 


DEVIATION 


TOTAL RANGE 


RATE 


ACCITRACY 


HATE 


ACCURACY 


RATE 


ACCURACY 


D 

E 


16 
16 


75 

78 


2.24 
2.41 


8 
11 


12-20 
10-20 


50-100 
36-100 



PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CASES WHICH DO NOT VARY MORE THAN ONE 
UNIT OF VARIABILITY 





B 


c 


D 


E 




B 





55 


62 


38 




C 


55 


— 


69 


50 




D 


62 


69 


— 


48 




E 


88 


50 


48 


— 



D and E accuracy 45% 
D and E rate 86% 



*Based on scores of 42 eighth grade pupils. 

This table is to be read as follows: 55 per cent, of the 42 eighth grade 
children maintain the same relative position when tested with Scale B 
as with Scale C, within one unit of variability (2 points of score). The 
correspondence between scores from Scale B on a seven minute basis 
and Scale D on a two minute basis was greater, being 62 per cent., but 
between Scale B and Scale E was less, being but 38 per cent. The corre- 
spondence between scores for number of points attempted in Scale D and 
E was 86 per cent, but the correspondence for scores for accuracy of 
work was but 45 per cent. 



READING 339 

test by means of any one of the four scales yields a reliable 
measure of the group. The Gary generalized scores, being 
based upon the four trials, may therefore be accepted as 
accurately reflecting the abiHties of the Gary children. 

The results of the repeated test throw light upon the 
que&tion of the reliability of the individual scores. The 
coefficients of correspondence between the scores de- 
termined from the various scales were found (Table 
LXXXV, page 338). In general, approximately half the 
children will, in successive tests, maintain the same rela- 
tive position within the group. When the tests are given 
with a two minute time allowance, 86 per cent, of the 
children will maintain the same position in two trials 
as far as rate scores are concerned, but only 45 
per cent, as far as accuracy scores are concerned. In 
other words, the high correlations which exist between 
the conventional Trabue scores and the other general 
measures of ability in school work are probably due to 
the fact that maximum scores are determined more by 
general intelligence than by specific abilities. 

The scoring of the Trabue Tests presents an interesting 
and difficult problem. The relative difficulty of the 
different sentences was determined on the basis of the 
responses made by children when given tests of about 56 
sentences at a time. In the form used at Gary each 
test consists of but ten sentences. It is extremely 
probable that the relative values of the sentences would 
be affected by this change, but how much is not known.^ 

^See page 296, footnote. 



340 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

A second peculiar point is the question of whether or 
not a sentence has the same value to one who cannot 
complete it at all, to one who can just complete it, or can 
complete it only after effort, and to one who can complete 
it easily. Under the standard conditions such problems 
do not arise, as the time limit is from three to four times 
as long as is necessary for all the children in the upper 
grades to try all the problems once. But under the 
shortened time allowance, the question of the amount 
of credit to be given for each sentence is an important 
one. For the Gary tabulations the scores for number 
of sentences tried were based on the regular allowance 
of 2 points per question. The conventional score was 
taken as points right and the accuracy score as the rela- 
tion between the points attempted and the points right. 
If the sentences are considered to increase in difficulty, 
however, it would probably have been better to have 
computed a cumulative score for attempts and rights; 
that is, allow 2 points for the first question answered 
and 4 for the second and so on. The sum of all the 
points attempted would then be the rate score and the 
per cent, the points right were of the points attempted 
would be the accuracy score.^ However, as it was 
desired to make comparisons between the scores for 
Scales C and D, and Scales D and E, the conventional 
method was used as a basis of scoring in both cases. 



iThe coefficient of correspondence for 42 eighth grade scores in Scales 
D and E figured on this basis was]43 per cent, for rate and 55 per cent. 
for accuracy (one unit of variability). 



READING 341 

A tabulation of the rate and accuracy scores of 42 
eighth grade children in the four trials of the tests 
was made to show the differences in the conditions under 
which the children were tested for the different scales. 
In Tests B and C about 80 per cent, of the children 
wrote- something for every question, but very much of 
what was written beyond a certain point was incorrect. 
The median accuracy of the group is about 70 per 
cent. In Tests D and E, however, each child had time 
to reach the sentences which were difficult for him, yet 
not time enough to puzzle out answers that did not 
readily suggest themselves. The median accuracy is 
about 5 per cent, higher. But 7 per cent, of the 
children were able to finish all the sentences, and the 
remaining children are shown in positions which reflect 
their relative rates of work as well as the difficulty of 
the sentences they are able to complete in the given time 
(Table LXXXVI, pages 342-343). 

The point of the data in the tables is that any considera- 
tion of what the results mean must take into account 
the fact that the conventional Trabue scores are scores of 
maximum achievement. They tell nothing about the rela- 
tive efficiency with which the results have been achieved. 
If the results seem more constant than in other tests, it 
is because the conditions under which they are given are 
so controlled as deliberately to ignore those important 
phases of a child's work which differentiate him from 
other children, such phases as result in differences in the 
rate at which he works and in the quality of his output. 



342 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



^•Ci;» 



S^ « 



m a 



< 
u 


r 

3 


3 


COTHOilOiHOStO-rJieOTHrH 


^ 


o 


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CO 


00 


. 






iH 1-1 C<J 


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tH 


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o 

< 


oo5050ooot-t-«><;ou3U5-»*-rticoco 

T-l 




m 

w 

< 
u 


f 

1 

; 


3 

o 


tH U5 Ol t- CD (M CO Tt< (Mi-I(M 




o 


CO t- CO lO (M CO ->* rH W 


CO 

CO 


00 
1-1 


tHtHtHiHtH iHi-l 


t> 


1-1 


iH iH 


N 


1—1 






i-( 






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1—1 


1 


o 


omowsousoioo^oiaouso 
oosasoooot-t-sDcoiOiOT^Tj<eoco 
1—1 





READING 



343 



IM U3 «0 U5 t- T-H U3 eo (M CO d t^ 



o 


T-( 1— 1 1-1 


CO 


00 

1-1 


5Q (M 1-1 -"I* T-l tH 1-1 <M 


1-1 




1-1 


C^ COCO i-liH T-t 


1-1 


1-1 


1-1 TO (M 1—1 1-1 


00 




tH 1—1 


(M 


o 
1—1 


rH 


1-1 


(M 



^ 



1-1 (M iXXM O CO «5 in -^ (M 



s 


iH (M 


P3 


00 

1-1 


iHi—li— |i*THia{MCO 


00 
1—1 


iH 


USi-ICD (MtH 


U3 

1—1 


i-i 


1-1 iH 1-1 


CO 


CO 
1—1 


1-1 1-1 


(M 


o 

1—1 







ooia3oooot-t-i;oixiioirD-^-r)<co 



;5 o^^is ° 
•s "^S <" o 
^ vo^ • 5P J' 

c-o lu S 2 tio 

C <=! « 0-5 

t3 -ijy:| 00 jj -S 
ii "* O o '^ « 

ii S s <^ """S 

" "5 S ^ S o 

u D-S 0.2 o 

•~ "^ ,!> E- *i "*-" 

2i « rtii °^>, 

3 S R c ?i 3 



60 •> O 

•a "S ^ <« 



<u oj a> 



01 '^■l-> *■' 



U 



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S ^.^ 

N CS W IH S 3 . 

,^_, a> fO P +^ -O g 
J, 2-fl O rt S 1- 

^ t! " rt ft: lo 
OT fl S 

^ 2 n 

S-g o^ '^O =« 

•h 53 00 « <*3 m 

•-00 3 g«g^ 
3 oBiilS '=^iJ 



^3 «-S 



Cj K^ pa 

0] ^ 






344 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Put in other words, the conventional Trabue scores 
eliminate very large differences in degrees of skill, and 
differences in the efficiency with which the skills are used. 
They reveal only the utmost which a child is capable 
of achieving, without regard to the effort by which it is 
achieved. Under such conditions it is not surprising 
that the results correlate highly with the results from the 
Binet-Simon Tests and other tests of general intelK- 
gence.^ But to a corresponding degree they are not 
measures of the effects of classroom training. 

If the Kansas Reading Tests were given under condi- 
tions similar to those required by Trabue, very dift'erent 
scores would result. For each of the other tests used 
an equivalent statement can be made. It is important, 
therefore, that the reader recognize the difference in the 
conditions and make no comparisons between the results 
of the Trabue Scales and the results of other tests without 
keeping this fact in mind. 

It is contended by many persons that both the Kansas 
Silent Reading Tests and the Trabue Scales should not 
be considered either measures of reading ability or of 
ability in language work, but measures of general in- 
telligence. It should be evident from the discussions 
above that neither of these tests measures directly any - 
single product of classroom teaching, and both call 
for the exercise of much initiative, judgment, and 
reasoning ability in addition to the ability to read 



'See Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Educa- 
tion, No. 77, p. 77. 



READING 345 

and understand the material of the tests. The reader 
should note at this point that if the tests are considered 
as measures of reading ability, they confirm the previous 
results in showing that the Gary children do very nearly, 
if not quite, as well in reading as the children in conven- 
tional schools. If the tests are considered as measures 
of general intelligence and reasoning abiHty (without 
attempting to define what those terms may mean), 
then they show that the Gary children are normal in 
general capacity and intelligence. 

RELATIONS BETWEEN TESTS 

Perhaps the most convincing proof of the fact that each 
of the various reading tests used at Gary measures a 
particular phase of reading ability is found in the relation 
between the individual scores in various tests. The 
coefficients of correspondence were computed from the 
scores of 33 eighth grade children, all who were meas- 
ured in all of the reading tests (Table LXXXVII, pages 
346 and 347). Teachers' marks refer to the marks (in 
per cent.) assigned by the teachers on the estimate card 
shown in Figure 53, page 305. Time in oral reading is 
the number of seconds taken to read a paragraph of 
Gray's Reading Scale (based on the average for para- 
graphs four, five, and six). Points in oral reading rep- 
resent the conventional score in oral reading. Kansas 
scores, rate scores, and accuracy scores have the 
meanings previously indicated, but were determined by 
averaging the two out of three variability ratios that 



346 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



USCQi— I • -OOi O CO CO T-H CO o 

a5T*cou3T— lOi-HcaosoeoT— lo 

lO to 1— I 'sj' '-I 

I I I , I I I I I t I 1 I 



CO 1— I CO T-1 c<i t- 1— 1 1— 1 1~ 05 c<] CO 









g <D =J 
C/3 M"< 



'O:: :: 



*-< ^ OJ .« 

aj > i-i .<^ 



2 bf 



be 

^ tJ -(i >^ 
. rt e^ O O) 

aj 3 C 5 



+J Oh 



READING 



347 



O 

iz; 

Q 
!zi 
O 
Pi 
ui 
W 
P4 

o 
u 



W<*eO I t- ■<* t- -<* CO «3 U3 CO U5 t- 






.s .^-5 

rt H CI M o 4j p 

r7i iV U 14-. <L> 
» » « 2 3 u 2 



la-si 



rt £ «^ o eJ ;* 



THCgoO-<*lf3CDt-OOOSOr-)(MCO-^ 



5 a^"; 






c (g 
" S 



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0) J, 



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!« O 2.2 

bow 
rt w a ui 

J3 4-> 4-> 



348 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

were nearest alike. For instance, if a child's score was 
+ 1.6 in one test, — 2.7 in a second, and +1.8 in a third, 
his average would be taken as +1.7, the low score 
in the second test being rejected as a chance varia- 
tion. This procedure was adopted after comparing its 
effects with results obtained from averaging the actual 
scores. The ratios were deemed a better basis from which 
to work because of the differences in the difficulty of the 
tests. In the case of the Trabue Tests, however, the actual 
scores in Scales B and C were averaged for score and the 
actual rates and accuracies in tests with Scales D and E 
for rate and accuracy respectively. The rate of silent 
reading is based upon the average of the two nearest varia- 
bility ratios out of the three in the reading tests. For 
the reproduction score, ideas reproduced represent the 
actual number of ideas reproduced, while accuracy of 
reproduction expresses the relation between the actual 
points and the possible points. Rate of reproduction 
refers to the number of words reproduced per minute. 
Finally, average position was found by averaging the 
thirteen variability ratios so far described. 

The significance of this last measure may need com- 
ment. If a child stands very high in all tests he has a 
high average position. If he does well in some tests 
and poorly in others, his average position is lower. It 
is probable that a relatively constant position in all 
tests is an indication of his natural capacity, so that aver- 
age position may be regarded as a measure expressing 
the general capacity of the individual so far as the capac- 



READING 



349 



ity is revealed by the reading test (Figure 57, page 350). 
For most of the reading tests the degrees of corre- 
spondence between any two tests are approximately 
constant. The distribution of coefficients is as follows : 



TABLE LXXXVIII 

Distribution of Coefficients of Correspondence of Fourteen 
Different Types of Scores from Reading Tests 



RANGE OF COEFFICIENT 


20-29 


30 

14 


40 

27 


50 
20 


60 
16 


70 
8 


80 

1 


TOTAL 


Frequency 


5 


91 



The median coefficient is 50. That is, about half 
the children will maintain the same relative position in 
any two sets of scores from reading tests. A coefficient 
of from 40 to 60 means, therefore, only the degree of 
correspondence which is to be expected froni the fact 
that all scores are, in general, predetermined by the major 
factors of heredity, maturity, and training. Where, 
however, the coefficient of correspondence falls to 30 
or 20 per cent, it signifies that one or both of the tests 
measure peculiar or specific abilities.^ When the co- 
efficient rises to 60, 70, or 80 per cent, it signifies that 
scores in the last two tests are determined more nearly 
by the same factors. It may be that the factor is simi- 
larity in the abilities measured, or it may be that the 
factor is general intelligence, but whatever causes a high 
score in one test causes a high score in the other also. 

^Journal of Applied Psychology, March, 191 7, Vol. I, p. 26. 



350 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



Figure 57 
Individual Records in Reading Tests 

UNIT5 or VARIABILITY 
ABOVE MEDIAN BELOW MEDIAN 

654-321012345676 



f«»eh*r*« Hark 
Oril Rsadlng Fata 




4Tera«« Fsallion_ 



INDIVIDUAL 



The horizontal lines represent 14 different measures of pupil's ability 
in reading. The vertical line marked "O" represents class median in 
each phase of reading ability. Distances to the left and right of the 
class median represent positions above and below in terms of the vari- 
ability. (Median deviation.) The solid line shows the position in each 
of the 14 sets of results of the member of the class who had the highest 
average position. The broken line represents a similar record for the 
member of the class who had the lowest average position. The dotted 
line represents the record of the member of the class whose average 
position was exactly median. 

The curve shows that while for individual tests there is a large amount 
of individual variation, the position of each child shows a tendency to 
vary about a certain general level of ability. It is probable that this 
general level is determined more by capacity than by training. 



READING 



3SI 



Figure 58 
Average Position m All Reading Tests 



Var.Ubilltr R»Uoj^ 

CT. 39 V-r. 6 



to Average Position _ 
e,T. -i-J V.r. 4 




tt^ba I I. 3 4^ S « 7 S 

ToUl Number of Coaei J ■? Number within ! Unit..28_ 



20 21 22 2i 2+ ?5 2fc 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 

P«rc«ntas9 of Correiporwlenc*, — n»^ S 



The scale along the base of the figure represents the mdividuals of a 
group of 33 eighth grade children. The solid line shows the relative 
position of each child in the class as determined by the average of his 
position in each of 13 sets of scores from Reading Tests. The broken 
line shows the relative position of the same children as determined by the 
scores in Gray's Oral Reading Scale. Twenty eight out of 33 children, 
or 85 per cent., maintain the same position within one unit of variability. 
The dotted line shows the relative position of the same children based 
upon accuracy scores in the Trabue Test when given with a time allow- 
ance of but two minutes. The percentage of correspondence between 
the Trabue scores and the oral reading is 33 per cent. 

The curves show that the scores in oral reading are probably deter- 
mined more by capacity than by training, while accuracy scores in the 
Trabue Tests used as rate tests are measures of a specific ability. 



352 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

The correspondence between teachers' marks and score 
for oral reading is high. The correspondence is equally 
great between teachers' marks and the Kansas Silent 
Reading Tests, or between teachers' marks and the 
measure of average position. The correspondence with 
Trabue is also high. All these, however, are measures of 
general intelligence. It is extremely probable, therefore, 
that at Gary teachers' marks reflect the general capacities 
of the children. On the other hand, rate of silent reading 
and accuracy of reproduction have very little corre- 
spondence with the teachers' marks. 

A corollary of the foregoing conclusions is that at Gary- 
scores in Gray's Oral Reading Tests are determined largely 
by the capacities of the children. The coefficients between 
the oral reading scores and the measures of general in- 
telligence are all high. The correspondence between 
scores in oral reading and average position is 85^ (Figure 
58, page 351), a further confirmation of this conclusion. 
The coefficients also show that time required to read is a 
large factor in determining the oral reading score, so 
this in turn must be determined largely by the native 
capacities of the children. 

The coefficients for the different types of scores for the 
Kansas Silent Reading Tests and for the Trabue Tests 
are interesting and significant. The conventional scores 
in these tests show considerable correspondence with 
measures of general ability but very Kttle with specific 
abilities. Accuracy, or degree of understanding, isa 

^Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation, +• 73, P- E. ± .05. 



READING 353 

specific phase of skill in reading, and like all other specific 
abilities shows a low degree of correspondence with other 
abilities which are equally specific. 

The scores for rate of silent reading show considerable 
correspondence with the time scores, and with scores 
for average position, but with all accuracy scores the 
correspondence is low. Apparently at Gary the rapid 
readers are not those who read understandingly. It 
is probable that the rate of reading scores and all the 
reproduction scores are measures of general abilities, 
but here again the general correspondence is lower for 
accuracy of reproduction than for the other abilities. 

It should be remembered that these results are based 
upon very few data and have significance only for Gary. 
Even for Gary the chief point to the foregoing discussion 
is that the scores of children in the various tests vary in 
every conceivable fashion. That is, the relation be- 
tween abilities or the dependence of one ability upon 
another varies from child to child. Each test, so far as 
it measures a specific ability, will yield scores which are 
significant for that test alone. Therefore, no general 
comparisons have been made. Only certain phases of 
reading work have been measured and conclusions drawn 
are to be interpreted as applying to these particular 
phases alone. 

CONCLUSION 

The foregoing discussion must have rendered evident 
the truth of the statement previously made that the 



354 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

measurements of reading ability at Gary are much less 
satisfactory than for other subjects. But at least the 
conventional reading tests have been given carefully, and 
as much is known about the reading abilities of the Gary 
children as such tests reveal. 



VIII. FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 

MEASUREMENT of classroom products is or- 
dinarily accomplished by giving standard tests 
under controlled conditions. The testing ac- 
tivity results in a series of figures (scores) describing 
either quantitatively or qualitatively the way the children 
behaved under the test conditions. The question imme- 
diately arises: What relations do the scores made by 
the children in standard tests bear to their real abilities? 
A Uttle reflection will show that the results of tests 
are affected by many factors. For instance, nervousness 
may lower a child's score for accuracy of work in addition 
from loo to o per cent., while recent study or practice on 
a particular test may lead to scores far above the normal 
level. Hence, the score of a child in a test is a reliable 
measure of just one thing, what he did in that test. 

HEREDITY 

The basic factor in the performance of each individual 
is his heredity, or capacity.^ That children differ in 
capacity is the common experience of all, and these 

'The tliree technical terms used in this discussion — ^perfonaance, ability, 
and capacity — may be defined as follows: 

Performance is the specific achievement (actual score) made in a 
particular test. Ability is the general power to perform. It is best 

355 



3S6 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

differences are observable from birth. So far as the 
Gary results are concerned, the effects of heredity are 
either negligible or unknown. In any large unselected 
group of children the percentages of individuals of ex- 
ceptional ability, of average ability, and of small abihty 
are probably constant. If, as seems probable, unusually 
large numbers of the Gary children are born of foreign 
parents,^ they might form a selected group as to capacity, 
provided there were marked racial differences in capacity 
from country to country. However, the facts in regard 
to all such hypotheses are wanting. It is known that 
the children in the Gary schools come from a wide variety 
of racial stocks. Therefore, as a group, the Gary children 
probably do not differ greatly in their basic capacities 
from the average of children in other cities. 

For example, the Gary eighth grade children copy 
figures at the rate of 1 1 1 figures per minute as compared 
with the score of io8 figures per minute for children in 
other cities (Table LXXXIX, page 358, Figure 59, page 
359). The activity involved here is almost entirely the 
motor activity in writing figures, and no direct training 
of this character is given in the schools. The differences 
between the Gary and the country wide results in this 

inferred from the median performance in a series of trials of the tests 
since the amount of variation shown by the series as a whole furnishes 
a measure of the reliability of the inference. Capacity is potential, or 
undeveloped ability, the possibilities of development inherent in a child's 
original nature. For an extended discussion of these definitions see 
Bulletin No. 4, Courtis Standard Research Tests. 
' ^See The Gary Public Schools: A General Account. 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 357 

test are not significant and are, if anything, in favor of 
the Gary children. In the Kansas Silent Reading Test 
and in the Trabue Test, which are considered by many as 
measures of general intelligence, the differences between 
the Gary results and those from other cities are small.^ 
In view of all the facts that are available, the author con- 
siders it probable that the Gary children represent a nor- 
mal group as far as inheritance of average mental capacity 
is concerned.^ 

MATURITY 

The second important general factor affecting per- 
formance is maturity. By maturity is meant that in- 
crease in abiHty from grade to grade caused not by addi- 
tional purposive school training, but by the greater 
development, increased vigor, and riper experience due 
to added age. 

For instance, in the first trial of the test of copying 
figures, 53 figures per minute were written by the third 
grade children. This proves that as a result of the train- 
ing in the early grades the ability to write figures is 
well developed by the third grade. The grade scores 



^See Chapter VII, page 290. 

^In Gary there is a formal organization of health, dental, and psy- 
chological clinics, and several classes are composed wholly of children 
whose mental condition is such that they are not the equal of normal 
children. The scores of such classes are not included in the tabulations 
of the preceding chapters. The Gary results would be lower if the chil- 
dren from the special classes had been distributed through the grades 
on the basis of their ages. 



358 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 359 

Figure 59 
Development in Copying Figuees 

THE GARY SURVEY 
School — CiT-Y .tmino, copyi ng- figures. 

120- 



COPIED 



100 H 

80 

601 

40 

20 




.--STANDARD 
,^'' ^"^ FIRST TRIAL 



n- MEDIAN OF FIVE TRIALS 



CBACBACBACBAC BACBACBA 

234S678 9l0llia 

GRADES 

The scale along the base of the figure represents grades. The scale 
along the vertical axis at the left represents the number of figures copied 
per minute. The heavy curve in the figure is based upon the median 
scores of the various grades. Taking into consideration the records 
made by each individual in the five separate trials of the test, the median 
scores based upon the results of the first trial are shown by the broken 
line. The standard scores based upon records of about 60,000 children 
throughout the country are shown by the light dotted line. 

Differences between the standard and the Gary scores are not signifi- 
cant, but tend to show that on the first trial the Gary children reacted 
to the test situation more slowly than the children of the average school, 
but that on the basis of the median of five trials the scores are higher 
than those of the average school. They also show that development 
in this test at Gary follows ver}' closely the conventional rates, so that 
the Gary children in respect to the abilities measured by this test are 
probably a normal, that is, an unselected, group. 



36o THE GARY SCHOOLS 

change from 53 figures per minute in the third grade to 
120 figures per minute in the twelfth grade. This 
change, however, is not due to increased knowledge or 
to direct training, but solely to that increase in abiHty 
which comes from increased maturity. 

It may be objected that the abihty to copy figures is a 
direct product of school training. This is, of course, 
true in a general sense. If the children had received no 
training whatever in copying figures, their scores would 
all have been zero, or nearly so. However, no specific 
training in copying figures is given as such. Whatever 
the activity to be tested, some form of motor response 
will be an essential part of the total response and the 
actual performance of the child will be influenced by his 
whole past Hfe. This is not what we ordinarily mean by 
school training. The increases discussed above represent, 
of course, the increase due to maturity, pure and simple, 
plus the transfer due to the general training of daily 
school and home Hfe. This does not mean that a test in 
copying figures can be used to measure maturity, merely 
that maturity is a factor contributing to the change in 
score. 

Both at Gary and in the results based upon thousands 
of children in many school systems, the third grade score 
is 58 per cent, of the eighth grade score, the fourth 69 per 
cent., and so on (Table XC, page 361). The corre- 
spondence between the rate of increase of score at Gary 
and in school children generally is almost perfect. That 
is, for both the Gary children and children in general the 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 361 

TABLE XC 

Development of Ability in Copying Figures 

8 



Gary 

Gary based on 115 as the eighth grade 

seores 

Standard based on 66,837 individual 

scores 



3 


4 
70 


5 

82 


6 

89. 


7 

97 


59 


57 


68 


79 


86 


94 


58 


69 


78 


85 


92 



100 
100 
100 



The scores of Table LXXXIX are here expressed as percentages of 
the eighth grade score. 

The table is to be read as follows: The Gary third grade in copying 
figures is 59 per cent, of the eighth grade score; the fourth grade score 
is 70 per cent, of the eighth grade score, and so on. In Table LXXXIX, 
page 358, the eighth grade score is lower than it should be compared 
with the seventh and ninth grade scores. The average of the seventh 
and ninth grade scores is 11 5 figures per minute. 

The second line in the table above is to be read as follows: The Gary 
third grade score in copying figures is 57 per cent, of 115, the fourth 
grade 68 per cent., and so on. On this basis, the rate of development 
at Gary is almost precisely that determined from the scores of 66,837 
children in schools in many states. 

rate of increase in this test is determined by the rate of 
increase of maturity because it is not determined by ex- 
press school training directed to that end. 

If the results from the different tests at Gary are stud- 
ied from this point of view it will be found that the vari- 
ous scores for rate of work may be divided into three groups 
or classes (Table XCI, page $6^) . Class A includes three 
tests, copying figures, oral reading, and multiplication 
tables, in which the motor and mental activities involved 
have been quite fully habituated earlier than the lowest 
grades in which the testing work begins. Most children 



362 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

are able to do the thinking called for in these tests much 
more readily than they can write or speak, so that their 
rate of work is determined almost wholly by the rate of 
motor activity. At Gary all three sets of scores show 
the same rate of development. The inference to be 
drawn from these data is that the instruction in oral 
reading and in the multiplication tables has produced 
no greater effects upon the rate of developement of the 
abihties of the Gary children in these tests than the gen- 
eralized training has upon the ability to copy figures. 
AbiHty develops at a rate which is the same for all, and 
which is fully accounted for by the increase in maturity 
or general training. 

In class B are included the rate scores for five other 
tests, the cancellation test, the rate of writing in the free 
choice test, in the reproduction test, in the composition 
test, the rate of adding in Series B, and the rate of an- 
swering questions in the Kansas Silent Reading Test. 
In all these activities the motor element is dependent 
upon, and controlled by, the mental. A child cannot 
cancel triangles faster than he can discriminate between 
the different forms; he cannot write the answers to addi- 
tion examples faster than he can think the sum of the 
successive addends; he cannot write the words in the 
composition test until he has determined what words 
are to be written. The scores of the tests in class B, 
therefore, represent activities of quite a different type 
from those in class A. 

The children at Gary could not have received any di- 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 363 



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THE GARY SCHOOLS 



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FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 365 



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366 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

rect training for the test in canceling triangles, as it was 
comparatively a new test, not in general use, and not 
related to conventional school work. Yet the rate of 
relative development in the cancellation test is almost the 
same as the rate of development in addition and in the 
various other tests of the group. For all tests, the average 
third grade score is 39 per cent, of the eighth grade score, 
the fourth grade 52 per cent., the fifth grade 64 per cent., 
and so on. Moreover, these percentages correspond 
(except in the lowest grades) with the rate of develop- 
ment of the strength of grip of boys and girls in the 
elementary grades (derived from Smedley's measure- 
ment of 6,000 children in the Chicago schools). 
Under the circumstances, it is plainly to be seen that 
rate scores in the tests of class B are determined by 
maturity and general training rather than by the direct 
effects of school work. 

In this connection the reader is referred to Figure 25 
which is reproduced here as Figure 60. The difference 
between the two curves in the graph represents the 
difference between the Gary product and the conven- 
tional product, or the difference between incidental 
development and development under formal training. 
In other words, there is no evidence that the Gary 
children develop in ability any more rapidly because of 
the training received in school than they would develop 
if they left school at the fourth grade and were subject 
merely to the general training of life. The increase in 
score in addition would seem to be due almost whoUy to 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 367 

Figure 60 
Development in Speed and Accuracy — ^Addition 



AddiHon— Diagnmtic Curve of Median Development ia Speed and Accuracy. Gradei 4 to 8 induiive^ June WB 


s-^l 


Speed Number ol Exarp.plei Attempted- 


Accuracy 

10051 


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Comparison of development in addition at Gary with median develop- 
ment in rate and accuracy in addition based upon a tabulation of the 
results from tests of thousands of children in cities of many different 
types. 

The scale along the top of the figure represents rate, or the number 
of examples attempted (speed). The scale along the left hand side of 
the figure represents the ratio of examples right to examples attempted, 
or the accuracy of work expressed in per cent. Each point of the 
diagram, therefore, represents two scores, rate^and accuracy. The por- 
tion of the circle marked "4" on the general curve (broken line) repre- 
sents a rate of 7.4 examples attempted and 64 per cent, accuracy. 

The curve for the Gary results is shown by the heavy line. The circles 
indicate the position of the different grade scores. The twelfth grade 
score in rate falls between the sixth and seventh grade score on the 
general curve, and in accuracy is slightly below the fifth grade level. 
The eighth grade Gary results are not quite equal to the general fifth 
grade scores in rate, and very much lower than the fourth grade in 
accuracy. 

The position of the general curve below the fourth grade is not very 



368 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

Figure 6o — Continued 

reliable, but the differences between the general character of the Gary 
curve and that of the general curve is marked. The general curve 
indicates that the development of skill in addition is, in the con- 
ventional school, nearly completed by the end of grade five, 
while the Gary curve shows that there is a very small, but regular, 
increase in rate and accuracy from grade to grade up to the end 
of the high school years. In high school years there is no direct training 
for the development of skill in addition, so the progress from grade to 
grade must represent either incidental training or the effect of the 
elimination of the less able by non-promotion. Therefore, the Gary 
curve as a whole would seem to indicate that growth in skill in addition 
in all grades is due mainly to the same causes, and very little to direct 
training. 

maturity and not to direct training. If this resulted in 
adequate rate and accuracy of work, no greater com- 
mendation of the Gary system could be given. But the 
levels of ability developed are not adequate, and, in view 
of the attention given to formal driU, the figures show 
merely the extent to which the classroom training fails 
to function.^ 

Class C in Table XCI, page 363, includes the scores of a 
number of other tests which have very different rates of 
development. They are given to prove that the figures 



iPerhaps it is well to point out that if any part of the low scores at 
Gary were due to the care with which the tests were given and scored, 
the effect of making the Gary scores comparable with those from other 
cities would be merely to shift the position of the Gary curve in the figure, 
not to change its character. In the opinion of the author, Figure 60 and 
the tables of this chapter are satisfactory evidence that the Gary scores 
reflect a real condition, and not merely the effect of some unusual element 
in the testing conditions. 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 369 

previously quoted are not the results of chance. A child 
cannot learn long division, for example, or how to multi- 
ply one fraction by another by any ordinary form of 
incidental training, and the rate of development for such 
activities is very different from those given in the other 
two parts of the table. For instance, in accuracy of work 
in the four operations with fractions, the fourth grade 
accuracy is 58 per cent, of the eighth grade development, 
but the increase in the next two grades is very sHght, 
and in the following two grades the increase is very 
rapid (Table XCII, pages 370-1). In other words, in those 
grades in which there was practically no training, the ac- 
curacy scores are nearly stationary, but as soon as training 
begins they develop rapidly.^ 

From the foregoing discussion it should be evident 
that in making comparisons from city to city the ma- 
turity of the children must be taken into consideration. 
If the children in one city are much older for the grade 
than those of another city, the rate scores made in any 
test in the first city would be ahnost invariably higher 
than those in the second city, even though the two were 
really equal in educational efficiency. As has already 
been mentioned, in Gary tabulations of the ages of 
children show that in the Froebel school in some grades 
the children are, on the average, a year older than the 
children of the corresponding grades in the other schools 



^For the benefit of those who would like to check the conclusions above 
by reference to data from other surveys, such data, arranged in form simi- 
lar to the Gary results, will be found in Appendix A, page 397. 



370 



THE GARY SCHOOLS 






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FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 371 



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372 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

of the city. It has also been pointed out that in spite of 
this advantage of greater maturity, the actual results 
in the Froebel school are in most tests lower than the 
average of the city. The reason for this is that the gain 
due to maturity is offset by certain handicaps (foreign 
parentage, etc.). On the other hand, the grade scores 
of the Froebel school in the test in copying figures are 
uniformly equal to, or a little above, those of the city as 
a whole, although individual classes may be found both 
above and below the city standard. 

The interpretation of the differences in score from one 
city to another is, therefore, no simple matter, and the 
relative effects of many forces must be considered. On 
the average, of course, the age of children per grade will 
be fairly constant from city to city, and the effect of ma- 
turity negligible. For the Gary results the positive knowl- 
edge that conditions in respect to over age are probably 
normal or better makes it possible to say that the low 
scores shown in preceding chapters are not to be attrib- 
uted in any way to maturity. 

Similarly, in the interpretation of individual results no 
set procedure can be followed. Other things being equal, 
the older child will make the larger score, but physiologi- 
cal age and chronological age are independent variables, 
and the effects of differences of maturity may be entirely 
hidden by differences in capacity, home training, etc. As a 
matter of fact the forces are so many and their methods of 
operating so obscure that no inferences may be safely made 
in the absence of certain knowledge of all the conditions. 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 373 

TRAINING 

The third major factor which influences performance 
is school training. When the test exercises are similar 
in every way to the daily work of the classroom, perform- 
ances in the test may directly reflect school training. 
The Hst tests in spelling are almost perfect examples of 
tests of this type. Had the lists been based upon the 
words taught by the teacher during the term, and had 
they been given in the regular course of a day's work 
without special papers and without special knowledge 
on the part of the children of the character of the work 
being done, performance would have been even more 
largely determined by school training. Finally, if 
several initial tests of equal difficulty, based on the same 
words had been given at the beginning of the term, so 
that each individual's initial ability was known, a com- 
parison of the final with the initial performance would 
have revealed the effect of school training,^ or the changes 
primarily produced by teaching effort. 

The educational tests given at Gary did not have for 
their purpose the direct determination of the effects of 
teaching effort, but the measurement of all the forces 



^This does not mean at all that changes would be the same for each 
pupil. The actual response an individual makes to training is also de- 
termined by heredity, maturity, past training, and present conditions. 
It does mean that school training would be the major force acting to 
produce change and that the changes which took place would be a meas- 
ure of the effects of this force. In case of sickness or other special con- 
ditions, of course, the statement would not be true at all. 



374 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

acting, of which school training is one. For example, if 
the idea of comparing the efficiency of, say, the Boston 
and the Gary schools comes to mind, what is meant by 
such a comparison is the equality or inequahty of the 
final product. The questioner asks, in effect: "Will 
the Gary children at any grade level be more capable of 
performing school tasks, and of meeting the demands 
of child and adult life outside of school, than Boston 
children of the same age and grade?" He does not ask 
the narrower and more difficult question: Does the 
Gary training, hour for hour, produce greater or less 
effects than the Boston training? He assumes that if 
the training is more efficient, the resulting product will 
be correspondingly greater. 

In attempting to answer such a question, we assume 
that differences in the effects of the factors of heredity, 
maturity, all training except that given by the school, 
and all other special conditions, are neghgible and that 
difference in school training is the one factor that causes 
differences in results. The reader will readily see that 
this means that all the effects of street Hfe, home life, 
and all other forms of training acting to produce ability 
are taken as being identical from city to city and from 
state to state, when a moment's reflection shows that 
they cannot possibly be identical. Yet no other course is 
possible at present. Nevertheless, the fact should be kept 
in mind that the products measured are resultants of all 
the training factors acting and not the narrower and more 
specific products — the changes produced by teaching ef- 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 375 

fort alone. Hence the care taken above to consider the 
possible effects of each factor that might have operated 
to produce the low scores at Gary. 

YEARS SPENT IN GARY 

In this connection one special factor needs discussion, 
the influence that the number of years of training received 
at Gary has upon the results. Gary is a rapidly growing 
city, large numbers of children being new to the school 
each year. An interesting and important question is: 
"What have the tests to show in regard to the abilities 
of such children in comparison with the abilities of 
children who have received part or all of their training 
in the Gary schools?" 

Three types of ability were selected for this study, 
accuracy of work in the List SpeUing Tests, rate and 
accuracy in the arithmetic test, and rate and accuracy 
in the Kansas Reading Test. Tabulations were made 
separately for those groups of children in the seventh 
and eighth grades who had been in the Gary classes one, 
two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine years. 
Unfortunately, however, records of entrance into, and 
progress through, the Gary schools were found to be imper- 
fectly kept. Consequently the data in regard to the 
number of years in Gary are not as reliable as one would 
hke. The results given in the following tables are, 
however, based upon the official records of the school, 
and not upon the children's statement as to the length 
of time spent in Gary; for from ten to twenty per 



376 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

cent, of the cases no information whatever could be 
secured. 

Tabulations were made in spelling and in the Kansas 
Reading Test for the seventh grade as representing a 
larger number of cases than the eighth grade. For 
spelling similar tabulations were made for the eighth 
grade. Out of a total of 260 seventh grade children, the 
number of individuals who have lived in Gary one, two, 
three, etc., years is fairly constant (up to six years), 
averaging 30 to each group. 

The results admit of no simple interpretation. The 
children who have been in Gary five or six years (score 
in spelling, five years, 57.9 per cent.; six years, 52.6 per 
cent.) do quite or nearly as well as those who have entered 
during the year 1915-1916 (score 57.9 per cent.) (Tables 
XCIII, page 377, and XCIV, page 378). On the other 
hand, children who have been in the Gary schools two or 
three years, or seven, eight, or nine years, more often have 
lower scores than those who have just entered, or who 
have been in attendance for five or six years. 

Several explanations are possible, and in the absence 
of definite information no certain conclusions can be 
drawn. On the face of the results it would seem that 
for two or three years following entrance into the Gary 
schools a period of readjustment to the new conditions 
follows in which the abilities of the children are low. 
However, for those children who have spent the major 
portion of their school lives in the Gary schools the re- 
sults are equal to the results obtained in the schools from 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 377 





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FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 379 
Table XCIV — Continued 

This table is to be read as follows: Of 260 seventn grade children, 31 
were reported as having been in the Gary schools one year or less. Of 
these 31, two made 100 per cent, accuracy in the List Spelling Test, four 
made 95 per cent., three 90 per cent., and so on down to three who made 
but 25 per cent. The average score for the group was 70.5 per cent. 
The average score of the entire seventh grade was 61.9 per cent. X 
represents a group of 26 children for whom no information in regard to 
years spent in the Gary schools was available. 

The results as a whole show no clear relation between children who 
have spent five or six years in the Gary schools and those who have just 
entered. Apparently the children who have received all their training 
in the Gary schools do as well as those who have received the major 
portion of their training elsewhere. 

which the new children come. Finally, it would seem that 
the scores made by the children who started in the Gary 
schools when buildings were small and the system undevel- 
oped have a tendency to be lower than the scores made by 
those who have had the benefit of recent improvements. 

On the other hand, it may be that the quality of the 
material drawn to Gary at different years has varied 
greatly; that during certain years the newcomers have 
been more able, or better trained children, and that dur- 
ing other periods the new material has been of lesser 
ability. For a complete discussion of the results it would 
be necessary to determine not only the length of time in 
Gary, but the source from which the children are drawn. 
It is known that many of the workers in the steel mills 
come from small mill towns in Pennsylvania, and from 
rural communities in the South and West. In other 
words, the writer interprets the data to mean that prob- 



38o THE GARY SCHOOLS 

ably the newcomers in Gary are drawn from small com- 
munities and have had poor educational training. 

A study of the frequency with which each type of 
abiHty occurs in the different grades shows that the 
children who spell with perfect accuracy occur in every 
division from those containing the scores of children who 
have just arrived in Gary to the scores of those who have 
spent five years or more in the Gary schools, that children 
with grades higher than 80 per cent, (standard 76 per 
cent.) are found in considerable number in every group. 
In similar fashion, in every group will be found children 
who spell less than 30 per cent, of the words of the test 
correctly. Similar conditions could be shown for 
other tests. In other words, a child of great native 
capacity who has spent all his life in the Gary schools 
may attain a perfect score in the spelHng tests in spite 
of the inefficiency of the general training. 

STATES 

The fourth group of major factors affecting perform- 
ance is best described as the physical, mental, or emo- 
tional states of the children tested. Hunger, disease, 
fatigue affect performance, as do also fear, nervousness, 
interest, etc. However, there is no reason to think that 
the conditions at Gary with respect to all such factors 
differ from those in other cities except so far as the pro- 
portion of foreign children is greater at Gary than in 
other cities. In any city on any one day a few children 
are Hkely to have headaches, or to be otherwise indis- 



FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE 381 

posed, a few children's emotional equilibrium will be up- 
set by the idea of taking a test, and so on. But the 
results show that when tests are properly given, the entire 
number of scores which grossly misrepresent the abilities 
of the children is not more than ten per cent, of the total. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS 

Of the physiological factors affecting performance, 
little that is based upon positive knowledge can be said. 
There are few studies of the effects of left-handedness, 
defective eyesight, sickness, accidents, and similar con- 
ditions (which obviously must have an influence upon 
the functioning of brain and muscle), so that it is im- 
possible to judge whether conditions in the Gary schools 
are better or worse than in other school systems. In 
general, any derangement or imperfection of the human 
mechanism will affect the performance of that individual 
in a test, and when that imperfection is a temporary 
defect, as a sick headache, or a sore finger, the individual's 
performance in a test may grossly misrepresent his true 
ability.^ In general, also, the number of such special 
conditions should be fairly constant from city to city so 
that the effect of such factors at Gary should not be 
greater than in other cities. 

SUMMARY 

In the foregoing pages the attempt has been made to 
array the evidence which proves that a child's perform- 
iSee page 452. 



382 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

ance in a standard test is determined by very many 
factors, of which ability is but one. Its discussions will 
have been in vain unless the reader understands that 
the meaning of it all is that the interpretation of the 
results of testing is a difficult matter at best, and becomes 
quite impossible unless the nature of the test itself and 
the conditions under which it is given are known. The 
thoughtful reader will appreciate the reason for the many 
warnings which appear throughout this report against 
careless comparisons from city to city. 

On the other hand, this chapter will have been equally 
futile if it succeeds only in arousing in the reader's mind 
the suspicion that because of the ease with which varia- 
tions in performance may be brought about, standard 
tests are unreHable and, therefore, valueless. It must 
never be forgotten that educational tests are as reliable 
as a physician's thermometer and no more so. They 
register with absolute definiteness and perfect exactness 
the precise performance of each child under the given 
conditions. The writer has used at Gary the standard 
tests which seem to him to be the best available and in 
the foregoing chapters of this report and in the appendix 
has arrayed as carefully and completely as possible the 
conditions under which they were given and scored. 
The reader should, therefore, be able to determine for 
himself the value of the material herein presented, and 
should not be led into the mistake of inferring from it 
either too Kttle or too much. 



IX. CONCLUSIONS 

IN THE foregoing chapters the attempt has been made 
to present in a strictly impartial manner the general 
as well as the detailed results obtained from the 
measurement of the products of classroom teaching at 
Gary. As far as possible inferences and conclusions have 
been omitted, and statements limited to facts. 

The person in charge of an investigation, however, has 
superior opportunities to judge of the reliability of the re- 
sults. He sees the responses of children and teachers to 
the testing situations at the time they are made. Week 
after week, he comes in contact with the ordinary routine 
of the school hf e under conditions less formal than at the 
times the tests are given. His observation of the work- 
ings of many intangible factors behind the scenes aid and 
influence him in interpreting the formal results. 

Herein Hes a source of danger. Human observation 
at best is faulty, and inferences based upon it may be 
grossly biased. The author feels, however, that in spite 
of this danger he would be doing less than his full duty 
if he did not give his personal interpretation of the 
results secured. Accordingly in this chapter his conclu- 
sions are recorded for the benefit of those who may desire 
to know them. 

383 



384 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

The general conclusion of the author is that the prod- 
uct of classroom teaching of the fundamentals is, at 
Gary, poor in quaUty and inadequate in amount; it 
approximates in character the product of the poorer 
conventional schools, and reveals in no particular the 
slightest indication that it has been affected either 
favorably or unfavorably by the enriched curriculum, 
or other special features of the Gary schools. The 
progress from grade to grade is relatively small, the final 
levels of achievement reached are comparatively low, 
and the differences between the results of simple and 
complex tests in any one subject increase progressively. 
The entire investigation reveals many and consistent 
evidences of careless work, imperfectly developed habits, 
and marked lack of achievement. 

The reader should, however, not infer too much from 
the preceding statement. In the writer's judgment the 
results do not mean at all that the movement for the 
sociahzation of school work is wrong, that the new type 
of organization is injurious, and that a modernized 
program is a failure. They do mean simply and solely 
that none of those features of the Gary experiment which 
appeal so strongly to the imagination and sympathies 
of the casual visitor have operated effectively enough 
to offset the inadequate control of the organization and 
administration of the system which the other investi- 
gators have brought to light. 

In other words, results of tests reveal conditions but 
do not show causes. While the results prove plainly 



CONCLUSIONS 385 

that the products of classroom teaching in the fundamen- 
tals are poor, the reader should not allow his mind to 
associate in a casual relationship the fundamental the- 
ories of a modernized school and inefficient teaching. 
Neither should he be misled by ''explanations" of the re- 
sults. It would be most unscientific, with an adequate 
explanation at hand, to assume that the effects noted 
are due to the operation of a remote and question- 
able cause. Present results prove merely that at Gary 
certain vital factors in school work have been neglected, 
but the reader should not decide what those factors are 
until he has read the other volimies of the report.^ 

The writer does not believe that the present defects of 
administration are in the slightest degree inherent in the 
attempt to enrich the school curriculum or to modify 
school practice so that it will appeal to the interest of 
the child and satisfy the natural instincts of his developing 
life. Therefore, if this report should operate to retard 
the progressive movement of which the experiment at 
Gary is an expression, he would feel that a very great 
and needless injury had been done American education. 
Although when the investigation was undertaken, it was 
expected that decisive results would be secured, it must 
now be emphasized again and again that the effects of 
the newer ideals of education have not been measured, 
because at Gary these ideals are operating under such 
conditions that they play Httle or no part in determining 
the product of classroom teaching. 

^See report on Organization and Administration. 



386 THE GARY SCHOOLS 

On the other hand, the benefit of this report may be 
great if it makes clear that in education, as in other walks 
of life, it is not enough to take for granted that because 
aims are high, intentions good, and theory apparently 
sound, satisfactory results are sure to follow. The cour- 
age to attack experimentally great educational problems 
cannot be too much commended, but experiments un- 
measured and unchecked, except by the subjective opin- 
ions of their originators, are to be condemned. 

After all, the message of this report turns out to be 
not that the Gary schools are good, bad or indifferent, 
but that by measurement, properly used, a superintendent 
who is concentrating his attention upon certain features 
of a constructive experiment may determine whether 
or not he has left unnoticed certain other features of 
equal or greater importance. 



APPENDIX A 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I. Attendance and Days Tests Were 

Given 391 

II. Comparative Data on the Effects of 

Maturity and Training .... 397 

III. Illustration of Method of Making 

THE School to School Comparisons, 
Based on Scores for Handwriting . 400 

IV. Words Misspelled in Eighth Grade 

Compositions 406 

V. Sample Gary Compositions Arranged as 

A Scale 416 

VI. Compositions from Different Surveys 

Valued at Approximately 50 Hillegas 430 
VII. Vocabulary of Eighth Grade Composi- 
tions 434 

VIII. Determination of Critical Paragraph 

IN Gray's Oral Reading Scale . . 438 
IX. Method of Scoring Reading and Re- 
production Tests 443 

X. Variability AND Its Significance . . .452 
XI. Statistical Terms and Methods . .472 

389 



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394 APPENDIX A 

Table II — Continued ' 

The table is to be read as follows: 

On March 23, Thursday, a general test was given, known as a test of 
rate of copjdng figures. This was the first trial of the test and grades 2 
to 1 2 were tested. It proved impossible for the examiners to reach all the 
classes in their academic classrooms on this day, however, so the few re- 
maining classes were visited the next day. 

The table shows that 12 different kinds of tests were given; that some 
of the tests were given more than once; that on the average one class in 
the upper elementary grades was tested 21 times in 11 weeks of school 
work; that in general most of the testing was done on Tuesdays and 
Thursdays; that on 5 days it was necessary to visit certain classes on 
Wednesday instead of on Tuesday, and on Friday instead of on Thursday; 
that on 2 occasions only were the tests given mainly on any other days 
than Tuesdays and Thursdays. 

The disturbance of class work by the giving of a test varied from 10 
minutes to 40 minutes. Taking 25 minutes as the average time (prob- 
ably an over-estimate), and 3 hours of school work per day as the total 
time given to academic studies, the interruptions to be charged against 
the testing work decreased the regular class time by approximately 6 
per cent, during the testing period of 11 weeks, or a little less than 2 
per cent, for the full year. This was probably much more than offset 
by the stimulus of the testing work to both teachers and pupils. 



APPENDIX A 



395 





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III. School to School Comparison for Handwriting 

The tables are to be read as follows: In the free 
choice test in handwriting, the lowest class measured 
in the Froebel school was class No. 32. This was ranked 
as of the 4C grade in June, 1916. 

The generalized city wide score in the free choice 
handwriting test for the 4C grade was 37 letters per 
minute with a quality of 31 Ayres. The median rate 
of writing of class No. 32 Froebel was 43.8 letters per 
minute with a quality of 26.3 Ayres. That is, the rate 
of writing of the class was 6.8 letters per minute higher 
than the city wide score and 4.7 points lower in quality. 
As both of these differences exceed .1 of the city wide 
scores they are starred (*) in the table. 

In Froebel four classes had scores which were markedly 
above the city wide scores in rate, and four classes had 
scores which were markedly below the city wide scores. 
The variation in the remaining classes was considered 
to be negligible. 



400 



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412 



APPENDIX A 



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APPENDIX A 



413 



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414 



APPENDIX A 



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V. Sample Gary Compositions Arranged as a Scale 

The samples below constitute a composition scale 
and are given that the reader may see the nature 
of such a scale when all samples are of one general 
type. In the Hillegas Scale the samples vary^greatly 
in style and content and the effect of this added 
complexity is to confuse the judgment of those who 
have no conception of the general scheme of develop- 
ment in composition. On the other hand, the exact value 
of the samples in the Hillegas Scale has been determined 
with great care, so that it is much better to base judg- 
ment directly upon the Hillegas Scale, provided the per- 
son who does the scoring uses the scale only as a means 
of deciding the exact value a given composition should 
receive. 

Papers which range in value from o to 30 units have 
a common characteristic, they are dij6S.cult to read and 
understand. The errors in spelling and syntax are so 
many and so gross that on first reading the words "do 
not make sense." One must read and reread many times 
before the meaning is apparent. Sometimes even then 
one is not sure what the writer of the composition really 
intended to say. 

The exact value to be assigned such samples will be 

416 



APPENDIX A 417 

determined by the degree to which the meaning can be 
made out. If no meaning is apparent after study, the 
paper would, of course, have zero value, but such samples 
will be found but rarely. Sample A is an illustration of 
a composition in which the errors are so many and so 
gross that little meaning is apparent. 

SAMPLE A 
AN EXCITING EXPERIENCE 

I was on a wonderful to now-Yeark anditwaos 
and the journey that I lecekt so mouch butit 
the fun I head on the trean but the buge ried in 
eahner Nou-Yeaork waos the beast thean. and 
I belavef is all that I can thank on so godboy. 

Here and there it is possible to get a glimpse of the 
thought the child was trying to express, and there is a 
certain persistence of general subject throughout the com- 
position as a whole. Its value, therefore, will be some- 
where between o and 9. The value assigned by the Gary 
judges was 5 (average deviation of two judgments 5). 

Sample B represents a higher stage of development. 

SAMPLE B 
THE BEAER AND A BOY 

Ones their was a littil boy. He wea went in the 
weth a gan and a hachet and be he saw a beaer. 



4i8 APPENDIX A 

The beaer begain to run after the boy. And 
their was a oke tree he stared to clamb the tree. 
The beaer avas after the boy and the beaer 
stared to clamb the tree. And the beaer clam- 
bed and clambed so the boy thart he beter get 
out of their he f awed a hoi in the so the got down 
in the hoi and the beaer con't find the boy. So 
the beaer went on an hme. The bay clambed 
out and chot the lime of and the bearer wos 
celed. 

There is continuity of thought, and although the errors 
are so many and so gross that it is necessary to read and 
reread the words before one can translate them into their 
conventional form, still it is possible to make out the 
general meaning. Such a composition will range in 
value from lo to 19. The value assigned this composi- 
tion by the Gary judges was 15 (average deviation of 
two Judgments 5). 

Sample C represents a still higher stage of development. 

SAMPLE c 

Once My nother want to voiter a frincd And 
she take me a gave me to my aunt thats ny 
mother want away And my aunt was choping 
wood Andl was playing biut a bucter Came and 
ny aent want inside The houfee and I want and 
take The hatck and was choping the wood 



APPENDIX A 419 

with the hatchek and chop my Finger and my 
nother wasnot Home so I uat crying and Than 
ny mother came after There day and I was over 
ny aunt House I was in bed and ny mother was 
glad I was Well and I was happy again? And than 
" I have a mark on My frienger it is the left hand 
Frienger it is the 2ndfrineger and the Than 
after my mother take me Home and I was a 
happy girl After But I was till or ny frienger 
That marke stayed ny mother Was helfing my 
friend and Now I am happy girl as Happy as 
can be happy. 

There are enough words correctly spelled and correctly 
arranged in the conventional sequence so that one can 
get, even on a single reading, the general drift of the 
meaning. However, even in this paper one must read 
and reread parts of it before he is sure what thought the 
writer intended to express. Papers of this character 
range in value from 20 to 29. The value assigned this 
paper by the Gary judges was 20 (average deviation of 
two judgments o). 

In passing from samples of the first type to samples 
of the second type the emphasis shifts from gross errors 
in spelling and structure to errors in organization. The 
general characteristic of samples of this type is that they 
are tiresome to read. 

The worst sample of the second t3^e consists of mere 
succession of sentences loosely joined. Sample D is an 



420 APPENDIX A 

illustration and the value of such composition ranges 
from 30 to 39 Hillegas. 



SAMPLE D 
IN THE MOUNTAINS 

As we went to spent our vacation I happen to 
be right near the mountains I was glad couse I 
could go and climb just as higch as I want for. 

So I went with my father and mother we went 
pvery hiegh it was getting cold already why I 
think abouve the clouds I want to rich the tops 
but couldn couse there was ice and it was so 
sleapry to goe any further se we came baak when 
we came down there was many more moim- 
tains and I disided to go on some others well & 
ni went it wasnot very hiegh Just like others 
so when nex were clinbing it Httle to sandy we 
riched the top alright but whenwe wanted to 
come down why we couldn mole so we sat down 
and slide down in that way we couldn get down 
in that city where we were its too cold in sum- 
mer sometimes its snowing but this little city 
was full of trees and mountains. 

Note the frequent use of the word "and" Joining dis- 
connected thoughts, also the amount of irrelevant ma- 
terial. The value of the sample is determined by the 
general effect produced by disorganization and the 



APPENDIX A 421 

mechanical mistakes. The value assigned this com- 
position by the Gary judges was 30 (median deviation 
of five judgments 2, average deviation 3.6). 

In Sample E the gross errors are much less in number 
and less serious in character. On the other hand, the 
amount of irrelevant material is large. 

SAMPLE E 
AN EXCITING EXPERIENCE 

One day it was very hot and we didn't know 
what do do. 

This was at our Gym. period, so we went 
over on the lawn and sat under a tree for a while 
in the shade. 

After a while one of the girls said, Let's play 
something." We all suggested that we would 
play ghost. We started and played for a long 
while and then we got tired and we sugested we 
would play something else so we played leap 
frog. 

We were awfully hot now so we sat down in 
the shade and rested ourselves. 

After a while one of the girls sugested that we 
would play statue. We had been playing awhile 
and it was my turn to be be swung around. 
The girl that was swinging had swung all the 
other girls and they were pretty heavy then she 
took me and swung me around fast not thinking 



422 APPENDIX A 

of how light I was she let me go and I fell on my 
left wrist. I heard it crack and I thought it was 
broke, they took me down in the Gym and the 
Gym teacher bandaged it up. It was not 
broke, but it was sprained. 

I bet there were fifty girls that asked me 
where I fell what I was doing an how it was 
done. Well that was the last game that I have 
played since then. 

The value assigned this composition by the Gary judges 
was 40 (median deviation of five judgments o, average 
deviation i). 

Sample F represents a still higher degree of ability. 

SAMPLE F 
AN ACCIDENT 

We were out at camp No 133 which is sittua- 
ted in on near the banks of Deep River. One of 
the men that stayed at this camp* owned a old 
duck boat which leaked and if you wanted to 
ride in it you would have to set a certain way ot 
it would fill with water and soon sink. 

My brother saw me paddaling around in it 
]and he decided that he would do it himself. 

He wdghed about twenty-five lbs. more than 
me I told him the way to set in it but he would 



APPENDIX A 423 

not listen but said that one end was as good as 
the other. 

He jumped in and sat down on the nearest end 
which was the wrong end and paddaled out in- 
to the river. He paddaled down the river for 
"some distance and then turned around to come 
back. By this time the boat was nearly sink- 
ing and we saw him paddeling as fast as he could 
go to get back to the bank. 

But it was of no use the boat began to sink 
and he tried to get to the right end but in trying 
to get to the right end he upset the boat and had 
to swim with all of his clothes on. The water 
wasn't very cold and he swam all the way to up 
the bridge pushing the boat with him. He soon 
was in dry clothes and was none the worse for 
the accident. 

The composition deals with a single incident and there 
are evidences of organization and intelHgent selection of 
material. On the other hand, the errors in spelling and 
structure are sufficient in number and character to mar 
the continuity of thought, and the composition as a 
whole, hke others of this type, is tiresome to read. The 
value assigned this composition by the Gary judges was 
50 (median deviation of five judgments o, average de- 
viation .2). 

Sample G represents the best sample of this type. 



424 APPENDIX A 



SAMPLE G 
ON THE WATER 

WHle at a small lake not far from Gary my 
small brother had quite an exciting adventure. 
The lake is quite deep and though my brother 
can row a boat quite well we never allowed Mm 
to go out in a boat by himself . 

One day my brother asked mother if he might 
go down to the beach. She replied, "Yes, but 
do not get into the boats." Clouds began to 
gather and it looked as though we would have a 
violent electric storm. 

It began to get dark and mother thought of 
Bud so she sent my sister to get him. After a 
few minutes she came back saying that Bud was 
not on the beach. 

We asked if any one had seen him but no one 
had. I thought that he might be pla5ring with 
one of the httle boys so I went to a house on the 
bluff expecting to find him there. 

While I was on the porch, which over looks 
the lake, it began to thunder & lighten & soon 
the rain came down in torrents. I stood look- 
ing out over the lake & and I noticed a boat 
sway at the other side of the lake. 

I ran to my father and told him what I had 
seen. He hurried to the beach & found that 



APPENDIX A 425 

one of the boats was missing. Then he and 
my sister took a boat and in about twenty min- 
utes they came back with a rather frightened 
& very much bedraggled Kttle boy. 

He, my brother, showed great presence of 
'mind, for when the storm began he was not 
frightened very much and tried to reach the 
shore. 

You may be sure that he did not dare to go 
out in a boat alone after that. He told us 
that he would learn to swim first. 

In content, in organization, and in choice of words, this 
composition gives evidence of considerable power. The 
errors, however, are enough to spoil the effect of the 
composition as a whole, and to read many such papers 
would be a tiresome task. The value assigned this 
composition by the Gary judges was 60 (median devia- 
tion of five judgments 8, average deviation 6.6). 

In the samples in the third division the hterary appeal 
of the composition is its chief characteristic. Errors in 
mechanics and in organization there may be, but the 
choice of subject matter and the selection of words to 
express the writer's thoughts are so skillful that the 
appeal of the story is great enough to hold the reader's 
interest and attention in spite of such defects. 

Sample H, for Instance, was given a value of 67 by the 
Gary judges (median deviation of five Judgments i, 
average deviation 4). 



426 APPENDIX A 

SAMPLE H 
MY FIRST MORNING IN MEXICO 

We came on a train late at night and had a 
hard time finding an American hotel in San 
Louis Potesi. After finding one we went 
straight to bed, although my mother took plenty 
of time to lock and prop the door closed. The 
next morning I woke up early and looked out 
of the window. The first thing I saw was a 
rickity old closed up wagon coming down the 
street drawn by a few very small borros. This 
strange looking object was the morning street- 
car, the driver was standing in front blowing 
a small tin horn for the people to get out of the 
way. 

Some of the Peons were getting breakfast, the 
mother sat on the street baking tortellias and 
the family seated in a circle about her eating as 
fast as she could bake. The funniest thing 
about the people eating was that the pigs and 
dogs ran about the outside of the circle eating 
the scraps that were thrown them. 

Down the street comes a man riding on so 
small a borro that his feet touch the ground, he 
is smocking a cigerette and lazily looking about. 
Behind him walks his wife holding the baby and 
hiting the borro her husband rides on to make it 



APPENDIX A 427 

go. Behind the wife come the children each 
carrying something. The houses along the 
street are made of adobe, all the windows have 
bars on them which make the house look more 
like a prison. Over the tops of the buildings 
ran be seen the mountains which have nothing 
but the century plant on them. Some borros 
are. 

Its Hterary merit lies in the richness of its imagery and 
the vividness of its descriptions, which the errors 
in spelling and structure are not serious enough to 
spoil. 

Sample I represents the best sample found among 
all the papers written in the composition test at 
Gary. 

SAMPLE I 

With a jar and a somewhat business Kke 
jolt the rickty elevator came to a stop on the 
basement floor. The door swung open and I 
stepped out into press-room of the Chicago 
Tribune. 

Surrounded by a mass of quivvering steel I 
was at a loss to know what to do. I was sud- 
denly confronted by a bearded man clothed in 
ink smeared overall and jumper. A small tight 



428 APPENDIX A 

shop cap was set Jauntily on one side of his head 
and a pair of steel grey eyes peered at me thru a 
rather large pair silver rimed rimmed glasses. 
He seemed to be saying something to me but 
the battery of Hoe presses had eee^: control of 
the field and it was only with the greatest diffi- 
culty that I could hear what he was trying to 
tell me. 

Beckoning me with an ink stained finger the 
pressman, for such was the position of this man, 
piloted me around, under, and even over masses 
of quivering and roaring steel until we stopped 
before a press which stood two and one half 
stories high, a half city block in length and the 
same in width. The silent pressman paused for 
a moment to giaee glance with pride at the roar- 
ing monsters when he motioned me again and 
mounting an iron stairway with a brass railing 
we were soon standing on the top deck of this 
master press. Two and a half stories below me 
, sixteen large rolls of spottlessly white paper were 
swiftly unrolhng into the press. Wheels within 
wheels whirled and sang and its very song 
seemed to say " I am the Frank A Munsey the 
worlds largest newspaper press." 



The author of this composition was a twelfth grade 
student whose specialty lies in the field of journalism. 



APPENDIX A ^ 429 

He is a reporter for the school papers, and as the Gary 
representative of some of the Chicago daihes had had 
much experience in writing. The value assigned the 
composition by the Gary judges was 80. (Median de- 
viation of three judgments 5, average deviation 5.) 



VI. Compositions Valued at Approximately 50 
HiLLEGAs IN Different Surveys 

Reproduced here that the reader may judge of the uni- 
formity of the standard of different examiners using the 
Hillegas scale. 

PART OF SAMPLE OF COMPOSITION FROM HILLEGAS SCALE 
VALUE 47.4 



First De Quincys mother 
was a beautiful woman and 
through her DeQuincy in- 
hereted much of his genius. 

His running away from 
school enfluenced him much 
as he roamed through the 
woods, valleys and his 



mind became very medita- 
tive. 

The greatest enfluence of 
De Quincy's life was the 
opium habit, If it was not 
for this habit it is doubtful 
whether we would now be 
reading his writings. 



SAMPLE OF COMPOSITION FROM TRABUE MODIFICATION OF 
HILLEGAS SCALE VALUE, 49.7 

Next Saturday I should planting the com, wheat, 



like to go away and have a 
good time on a farm. I 
should like to watch the 
men plowing the fields and 



and oats and other things 
planted on farms. 

Next Saturday I wiH go 
to the Pioneer meeting if 



430 



APPENDIX A 



431 



nothing happens so that I 
cannot go. I should like 
to go swimniing but it Is 
not warm enough and I 
would catch a bad cold. I 
should like to go to my 
aunts and drive the horses. 



I do not drive without some 
older person with me, so I 
cannot go very often. 

I should like to see my 
aunts cat and her kittens 
too. I think I can, to. 



part op sample op composition from gary (eighth 
grade), value 50 

We were out at camp No My brother saw me pad- 



133 which is sittuated in an 
near the banks of Deep 
River. One of the men 
that stayed at this camp 
owned a old duck boat 
which leaked and if you 
wanted to ride in it you 
would have to set a certain 
way or it would fill with 
water and soon sink. 



daling arovmd in it and he 
decided that he would do it 
himself. He weighed about 
twenty-five lbs. more than 
me. I told him the way 
to set in it but he would 
not listen but said that one 
end was as good as the 
other. 



PART OP sample op COMPOSITION PROM SALT LAKE CITY 

(grade 7b), value 47.4 
One sunny morning in their way and came to see 



May my five cousins who 
were on their way to see the 
fair at Frisco stopped on 



me. May father gave me 
twenty dollars to entertain 
them. I was busy thinking 



432 



APPENDIX A 



of the best way to do it. If 
finally decided to go to the 
Bingham Copper Mines. 
This was satisfactory to all 
and taking along a lunch 
we started off. 

When we got there it 
was noon and everybody 
was hungry so we opened 
up the lunch and ate until 



there was not a crumb 
left. Next we hired a 
guide to show us through 
the mines and what a sight 
we seen. There were walls 
of dirt seemingly covered 
with the yellow mettle. 
Our guid showed us where 
the elevators were on which 



part of sample of composition from butte (eighth 
grade), value 50 



There are five little child- 
ren that live near us who 
are very poor. They sel- 
dom have any new clothes 
and less often any toyes. 

On Christmas and other 
days when we children have 
toys these children may be 
seen looking at us with 
longing eyes, and Easter 
time they even seem en- 
vious. 



Well I would first buy 
each child a pair of shoes 
about three and one half 
doUars. Then I would buy 
the girls, three of them, 
new dresses. The boys new 
suits. Which would cost 
about thirty dollars. Of 
course the girls would have 
to have hats. I would get 
simple ones but pretty. 
Then the boys. 



APPENDIX A 



433 



part of sample of composition from hackensack, n. j. 
(eighth grade), value 49.4 



One morning I got up 
about half-past six in the 
morning, this was in the 
country on my vacation 
and I helped the working- 
men feed the chickens, 
give them water and, fill 
the hoppers with charcoal, 
oyster shells, grit, bran, 
meddlins, alfalfa and some 
other things concerning 
chickens. 



Around noon times the 
men all got to-gether and 
opened a small pond, and 
let the water run out of 
it, and then got the ground 
out of it for fertilizer, and 
dug it out also to make it 
deeper and to take out 
all the bogs and things 
that were unnecessary to 
be there. 



434- 



APPENDIX A 





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tabernacle 

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APPENDIX A 437 



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VIII. Determination of Critical Paragraph in 
Gray's Oral Reading Scale 

One of the advantages of Gray's Scale is that its 
use gives, in effect, a series of measurements of any 
one individual from which it is possible to gain some 
idea of the reliability of the results. For instance, 
the record made by the eighth grade at Gary for para- 
graph I was 204 words per minute; paragraph 2, 196; 
paragraph 3, 191; paragraph 4, 196; paragraph 5, 186; 
paragraph 6, 180; paragraph 7, 153; paragraph 8, 
143; paragraph 9, 132; paragraph 10, 102; paragraph 11, 
108; and paragraph 12, 78 (Table VIII, page 440) . For 
purposes of comparison the rate of reading (actually re- 
corded as the number of seconds required to read each 
paragraph) has been transposed into the number of words 
read per minute. The average number of errors made in 
each paragraph was also found. These data are shown 
graphically in Figure i, page 441. In paragraphs i to4 
the rate is practically constant and the number of errors 
two or less. From paragraph 6 on, however, the number 
of words read per minute falls off rapidly and the number 
of errors per paragraph increases at a corresponding rate. 

It is probable that the curve based upon the rates of 
reading as given is unreliable because the units of rate 

438 



APPENDIX A 439 

(number of words read per minute) are not equal. In 
paragraph i, eighty-five per cent, of the words are of 
one syllable, while in paragraph 6 twenty four per 
cent, of the words have two or more syllables. Unfor- 
tunately, very little is known about the time required 
to read words composed of many syllables as compared 
with the time required for shorter words. On the basis 
of such data as are available, an estimate has been made 
of the probable rate in terms of equal units (sound divi- 
sions) and this estimate is represented in the figure by 
the dotted line. A comparison of this curve and the 
curve for errors will show that in Gary the eighth grade 
children read at what is practically a uniform rate up 
to paragraph 6, and the number of errors made in para- 
graph 6, while more than in paragraph i, has barely 
exceeded the two errors per paragraph which are per- 
missible under Gray's Standard 4. From this point 
on, however, the eighth grade children encounter diffi- 
culties, for the rate of reading rapidly falls. The median 
paragraph for the grade (see this report Figure 43, page 
267) is, therefore, probably two paragraphs beyond the 
type of material the eighth grade Gary children are able 
to read easily and without conscious effort. Paragraph 
6 is apparently the critical paragraph and probably rep- 
resents the most difficult material the Gary children 
should be judged able to read satisfactorily. Compari- 
sons with results from other cities, however, should be 
made on the basis of results previously reported. 



440 



APPENDIX A 






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Figure i 
Rate of Reading and Number of Errors 



RAT£|fRfiORS ORAL READING 

200 

RATE 



100 



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EIGHTH GRADE RECORD /"NT"-. 

y^^ .. -•:>^"eRRORS 



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PARAGRAPHS OF GRAY'5 ORAL READING SCALE 



• c o * O 6 7 d 9 10 II 12 

The diagram shows rate of oral reading and number of errors made 
by eighth grade children when measured by the Gray Oral Reading Scale. 

The scale along the base of the figure represents the paragraphs in 
Gray's Scale. The scale along the vertical axis marked "Rate" repre- 
sents the number of words read per minute. The scale along the vertical 
axis marked "Errors" represents the number of errors made per para- 
graph. The curves represent eighth grade median scores for 52 chil- 
dren up to and including paragraph 7. Only 50 children are represented 
in the scores for paragraph 8, and in similar fashion the number of 
children reading each paragraph declines to 27 for paragraph 12. This 
variation in the number of children reading the different paragraphs 
accounts for some of the irregularities in the curves. 

The heavy solid line represents the curve for rate of reading. The 
heavy broken line represents the number of errors made per paragraph. 

It will be noted that the rate of reading decreases so slowly from para- 
graphs I to 6 that the rate is practically constant, but paragraphs 7, 8, 
and 9 and the succeeding paragraphs are read much more slowly. As the 
rate decreases, the number of errors increase. 



442 APPENDIX A 

Figure i — ContinvM 

The curve for rate of reading is based upon the number of words ir- 
respective of the length. Each paragraph of the scale, however, con- 
tains words of a larger number of syllables than the preceding para- 
graphs. It is probable that could the rate of oral reading be measured in 
terms of a constant unit, the curve would approximate the dotted line 
shown in the figure. 

From the curves the inference is drawn that paragraph 6 is a critical 
paragraph for the Gary children. Up to and including paragraph 6, 
the children read at a rate which is not determined by the paragraph, and 
the number of mistakes per paragraph is approximately two. From 
this point on, however, the change in rate and in the number of errors is 
rapid. 



IX. The Method of Scoring Reading and 
Reproduction Tests 

There are no well established methods of scoring the 
attempts of children to reproduce a story which they 
have read silently. Accordingly, the method followed in 
the Gary survey will be explained in detail. 

Part of one of the stories used for the Reproduction 
Test is shown in Figure 2, page 446. This was analyzed 
by giving each main thought a key letter. Each element 
in the idea was called a point and given a number. The 
general scheme is also illustrated in Figure 2. 

No two persons would analyze the material in the same 
way, and it is even difficult for one person to be consistent 
throughout. However, the advantage of this form of 
analysis is that it enables the examiner to trace the action 
of memory in the process of reproduction. The analysis 
of each paper shows plainly which elements were recalled 
and in what order. The reader should note that, as 
analyzed, the paragraph yields 8 ideas and 43 points. 

The papers written by the children were scored by 
means of this key and marked for quantity and quality 
of reproduction. The number of units reproduced was 
taken as the quantity score. As the test was used pri- 
marily for the purpose of determining the rate of repro- 

443 



444 APPENDIX A 

duction, the children were stopped at the end of exactly 
three minutes. This fact was taken into consideration 
in determining the accuracy scores. The quahty, or 
accuracy, of reproduction was taken as the ratio between 
the points exactly reproduced and the points in the orig- 
inal from the heginning up to the most advanced point 
found in the reproduction. 

For instance, in the poorest eighth grade paper found 
(Fig. 3, pages 447-8) in three minutes a boy wrote but 16 
words, and reproduced but 3 of the 22 main ideas in the 
story, down to the word "pepper." Therefore, his quan- 
tity score is 3. He reproduced but 8 points out of 116 
points in the original and one additional point was trans- 
formed ("was late " f or " came down late ") . His quahty 
score, or accuracy, is rf f, or seven per cent. 

Of the two best eighth grade papers one is a paper 
which reproduces a large number of main ideas, the other 
a paper which reproduces most exactly the material 
read (Figure 4, pages 448-9). The first child wrote S^ 
words in three minutes, the second, 62. In the 83 words 
were 13 ideas, yet the accuracy of reproduction, as meas- 
ured by the points exactly reproduced, was but ^^ per 
cent. The second paper, however, had an accuracy of 70 
per cent. In this case the paper written by the child is 
very closely an exact reproduction of the original story. 

A third type (Figure 5, pages 449-50) is the paper which 
represents most nearly the median scores for the eighth 
grade (eight ideas reproduced with an accuracy of ^^ per 
cent.) . 



APPENDIX A 445 

One other illustration will be discussed (Figure 6, pages 
450-51), a sample which makes it very evident that the 
quality of the reproduction is determined by something 
more than mere comprehension of the meaning of the 
passage read. In this case the boy reproduced 3 out of 
th_e five imits correctly, and out of the 15 points which 
occur in the reproduction test but 4 are given exactly 
as they appear in the original. Two of the points are 
additions and the rest are transposed or transformed in 
some way. His scores are 3 units and 15 per cent, 
accuracy. The reproduction is much below the average 
of the class, but the cause is not failure to read or failure 
to understand. His rate of reading is 136 words per 
minute^ (median for his grade, 204), his average scores 
in the Kansas Reading Test (average of scores in Tests 
I, II, and III) is 15.3 points attempted (corresponding 
grade score, 23.9), but his accuracy of reading in the 
Kansas Test is 91 per cent, as compared with 83 per 
cent, for his grade. In other words, he is a slow but 
careful reader who comprehends what he reads better 
than the average. His score in composition was 39 Hille- 
gas (grade 45.8), and he has low scores in spelHng and in 
the Trabue Tests. 

In view of all these facts, therefore, it would seem safer 
to infer limited capacity and special difficulty in all 
language work as an explanation rather than lack of 
comprehension in reading. 

While conclusions may not be based on a single case, 

^Test n, 136; Test III, 123; Test IV, 134. 



446 APPENDIX A 

even a single exception may show the existence of a 
problem in need of careful study. Any one scoring a 
set of papers from a reproduction test will find plenty 
of evidence that ability in composition enters so largely 
into reproduction that until a suitable investigation has 
been made it is unwise, to say the least, to judge of com- 
prehension in reading by means of reproduction. Ac- 
cordingly, while the general records for Gary given 
above would appear to represent a poor quahty of work 
in the reproduction test, the author infers that the cause 
of the low scores is to be sought more in the difficulties 
of the children in reading, spelling, and the mechanics of 
English composition than in mere failure to comprehend 
what is read. 

Figure 2 

Analysis of Sample Eighth Grade Paragraph of the Reading 

AND Reproduction Test 

ORIGINAL PARAGRAPH 

Fred came down late to breakfast one morning, so 
late that all the other members of the family were 
through, and had gone about their respective duties. 
But though he had slept late, Fred was still sleepy; 
for he had staid up until twelve o'clock the night before, 
whereas he was usually in bed by nine. To tell the truth, 
he was also rather cross, — as most boys are apt to be 
when they are sleepy, — and as he took his seat, he said; 
"Pshaw" there's nothing on the breakfast table." 



APPENDIX A 447 

KEY 

MAIN StJBDIVISIONS POINTS 

IDEAS ' 

1 A Fred came down late to breakfast one morning 6 

12 3 4 5 6 

2 B So late that all the other members of the family 

- ^ ~ 2 \ 3 ~ 

were t hrough and had gone about their respective 

~ 4 ~ 5 6 

duties. 7 

7 

3 C But though he had slept late, Fred was still sleepy 4 

1 2 3 4 

4 D For he had staid up until twelve o'clock the night before 4 

1 2 3 ] 4 

, 5 E Whereas he was usually in bed by nine 5 

1 2 3 "~4 5~ 

6 F To tell the truth, he was also rather cross 5 

i 2 3 4 5 

7 G As cross as most boys are apt to be when they are sleepy. 5 

i 2 3 A ] ""5 

8 H And as he took his seat, he said; "Pshaw there's 

1 2 3 4 5 

nothing on the breakfast table . 7 

6 7 — 

43 

In the upper half of the figure the paragraph is given as it appeared in 
the Test. In the lower half of the figure it is given as it appeared in the 
key used in scoring. Each division of the paragraph considered to 
represent a distinct major thought or idea is given a key letter, and each 
element in the idea is called a point and given a number. The impor- 
tant connectives and unusual modifiers are considered as separate 
elements. The words underlined are considered single points., As a 
whole, the paragraph yields 8 ideas and 43 points. 

Figure 3 

The Poorest Eighth Grade REPRODtrcTiON 

REPRODUCTION 

Fred was late for breakfast one morning 
there was nothing on the table except some pepper 



448 APPENDIX A 

Analysis 
Total ideas in portion of original passage reproduced — 22. Total 
points — 116. Ideas reproduced — 3. Points exactly reproduced — 8* 
Quantity score — 3. Accuracy score — 7 per cent. 



f(D 



Record A/^A A A HHHV 
4 6 6 5 6 7 3 



The line is drawn around A to show that the idea, whUe reproduced, 

has been transformed or altered in the reproduction. For meaning of 
the points represented by A, A, etc., see key Figure 2. 

Figure 4 

The Best Two Eighth Grade Reproductions 

FIRST PAPER 

REPRODUCTION 

Fred got up very late one morning and was very cross 
and still sleepy he was up until twelve o'clock the night 
before when he generally goes to sleep at nine. He went 
to the table and all the rest of the family was through 
and he called kate but Kate did not hear as she was 
feeding the poultry in the back yard. 

He then said lazily nothing on the table and he put 
his head down and pretty soon he began to 



f|)??FDi)f® 



Record /61 A F /fI C C 
(1/6 4{j/3 4 

/^B Bill /f)K K L L L/iXl/i} 
(2J3 4 12 4(^4 6 1 2 6(j7;5^4 



H H I JH H H /MW) O m P 
2 3 3 5 6 7 IIA2J2 [ij 2 



The record on this page represents the largest amount (number of main 
ideas) reproduced, and the record on page 449 represents the greatest 
accuracy of reproduction. 



APPENDIX A 449 

ANALYSIS 

Total ideas in portion of original passage reproduced — 16. Total 
points — 79. Ideas reproduced — 13. Points exactly reproduced — 28. 
Quantity score — 1 3 . Accuracy score — 3 s . 

SECOND PAPER 
REPRODUCTION 

Fred came down to the breakfast table late, All 
the other members of the family had finished and were 
doing their respective duties. Although Fred had slept 
long he was still sleepy, for he had gone to bed at twelve 
o'clock the night before, whereas he was usually in bed 
at nine. To tell the truth he was also cross, as boys 

Record AAAA@ABB /B^ B B AA C C 
12 3 5 4 2 3 UA&/ 6 7 ViASJ 4 3 

D /d) DDEEEEEFFFFGG 
1(3/3 412345123512 

ANALYSIS 

Total ideas in portion of original passage reproduced — 7. Total points 
— 36. Ideas reproduced — 7. Points exactly reproduced — 25. Quantity 
score — 7. Accuracy score — 70. 

Figure 5 
A Median Eighth Grade Reproduction 

REPRODUCTION 

Fred came downstairs one day for breakfast but he 
was late for he had just gone to bed at twelve the other 
night and could not get up in time and when he came to 



450 APPENDIX A 

the table he was lazy and said "Theres nothing on the 
table " Then he sat down and began to call out " Kate " 
"Kate" but Kate never came because she was feeding 
the chickens in the yard. Then all at once he began to 
sneeze. 



Record AAA 
12 3 



®AAg)A dAd d® 

V^'<^ 4 1 Ui 3 4 

A © I H H H H/hNI 01 
2 3 3 5 6 7^/2 4 

I J (Tl) L L L L L O 0/p\ P 
5 2\l^ 1 267523V1/2 

P 
3 

The line is drawn around A to show that the idea, while reproduced, 
has been transformed or altered in the reproduction. For meaning of 
points represented by A, A, etc., see key, Figure 2, page 446. The symbol 
X represents addition or ideas not found in the test. 



Total ideas in portion of original passage reproduced — 16. Total 
points — 79. Ideas reproduced — 8. Points exactly reproduced — 26. 
Quantity score — 8. Accuracy score — 2^. 

Figure 6 
Reproduction by Pupil of Little Ability 

REPRODUCTION 

Fred was a boy how who had came down from his 
bed room lat for dinner and was lat because he had been 
out untill twelve that night when his usal bedtime was. 



Record A 
1 



APPENDIX A 4SI 




rEYE 



Th6"line is drawn around A to show that the idea, while reproduced, 
has been transformed or altered in the reproduction. For meaning of 
points represented by A, A, etc., see key, Figure 2, page 446. The 
symbol X represents addition or ideas not found in the test. 

ANALYSIS 

Total ideas in portion of original passage reproduced — 5. Total 
points — 26. Ideas reproduced — 3. Points exactly reproduced — 4. 
Quantity score — 3 . Accuracy score — 1 5 per cent. 



X. Variability and Its Significance 

To provide an objective illustration of variation in 
individual scores, the performances of the members 
of a certain eighth grade class in a very simple test 
will be discussed. A test in copying figures^ was given 
five times. It involves a minimum of thought ele- 
ments and measures simply the writing reaction time. 
The score is the number of figures written per minute 
without regard to quality. The starting and stopping 
signals were given by means of an automatic timing 
device. The tests were considered by the children as a 
game, and under practice their scores rose rapidly. 

The median score of the group of 22 eighth grade 
children was 100 figures on the initial test (Tuesday). 
On the second testing day (Thursday), when three 
trials were given in succession, the first trial resulted 
in a score of 103.5 ^ g2,in of 3.5 figures; the second 
trial in III figures, a further gain of 7.5 figures; and the 
third trial in 115 figures, a further gain of 4 figures. 
When the test was given for the fifth time (on the follow- 
ing Tuesday) there was no further improvement, the 
score being 115 figures (Table IX, page 454). 

The scores of individual children, however, vary in 

^Taken from Courtis Standard Research Tests, Series A, Test 5. 

452 



APPENDIX A 453 

quite a different fashion. Two children improved twenty 
figures between the first and second trials. The score 
of another child declined ten figures. A third child 
made his highest score on the third trial, while still 
another made precisely the same score in three trials, 
a slightly higher score in the fourth trial and a lower 
score in the fifth trial. 

The variations in the performances of individual mem- 
bers of a class may be accounted for in dift'erent ways. 
When taking the first test some of them proceeded cau- 
tiously and suspiciously. They eyed closely the stranger 
who gave the test and devoted a good deal of their atten- 
tion to the timing device. They had various thoughts 
and emotional reactions to which their conscious atten- 
tion was mainly given. But when they had taken one 
test and knew what to expect they began to put forth 
effort. They tried to excel their own scores and those 
of their neighbors. The competitive spirit developed 
and their scores rose. 

For others, taking the test was itself a species of train- 
ing. Their abiHties developed because their initial 
abilities were, for the most part, far below their capaci- 
ties. Some of the children became more skillful in 
turning over their papers quickly and getting to work, 
others learned to hold their attention rigidly to the task, 
others made their figures less carefully, and others in 
still different ways succeeded in writing a larger number 
of figures with each trial. 

On the other hand, factors of quite a different character 



454 



APPENDIX A 



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APPENDIX A 455 

produced variations in the opposite direction. A boy 
trying too eagerly used force enough to break his pencil 
point and lost time finding another pencil. A girl 
stopped in the middle of a test to pin up a curl that 
bothered her by swinging before her eyes. A boy sneezed 
and took out his handkerchief. After one or two trials 
a girl who was slow became discouraged and thereafter 
wrote Hstlessly without real effort. 

The performances of the children in the class cover a 
zone about fifty five figures wide. More than half the 
children have a difference between the highest and lowest 
score made of twenty figures or more, while the corre- 
sponding difference from the class as a whole is but fifteen 
figures. The pupil who had the most constant results 
(No. 1 6) has a variation between highest and lowest 
scores of ten figures. It should be evident, therefore, 
that ability to copy figures cannot be determined for 
the individual by a single test; that the performances 
of both the individual and of the class change from test 
to test under the play of many forces; that the ability 
of the individual can be inferred with certainty only 
from a whole series of tests which make evident the 
conditions under which variations take place. For the 
class, however, the single test is much more significant, 
for the group score and the group variations do not 
change greatly in subsequent tests. The coefficients of 
correspondence^ iii the five trials of the copying of 
figures test, based upon the individual scores of the 

^For an explanation of this measure of relationship see p. 475. 



456 



APPENDIX A 



42 eighth grade children present in all tests, bring 
out the effect of these chance variations in destroying 
the apparent correlations (Table X). The scores in 
Test I, for instance, bear about the same relation to the 
scores in Test IV that the results from any two educa- 
tional tests would bear (50 per cent.)- On the other 
hand, there is almost perfect correspondence (98 per 
cent ) between the scores of the children as determined 
by the median of five trials, and the scores on the second 
trial. After the second trial the factors of turning 
papers, making poorer figures, etc., begin to distort the 



TABLE X 
CoMPAUATi\rE Results of Diiterent Trials est Copying Figuhes^ 



TEST I 


MEDIAN 


MEDIAN DEVIATION 


TOTAL EANGE 


Trial I 


100 


10 


46-121 


II 


110 


10 


60-135 


" III 


115 


10 


62-145 


" IV 


117 


8 


65-145 


V 


117.5 


7.5 


60-140 


W. S.2 


114 


11 


60-135 



Percentages of Total Cases Which Do Not Vary in Relative 
Position More Than One Unit of Variability 



trials 


I 


II 


ni 


IV 


V 


w. s. 


I 





76 


74 


50 


57 


69 


II 


76 


— 


90 


81 


74 


98 


III 


74 


90 


— 


83 


71 


93 


IV 


50 


81 


3 


— 


83 


83 


V 


57 


74 


71 


83 


— 


91 


W.S.2 


69 


98 


93 


83 


91 


— 



iBased on the scores of 42 eighth grade pupils. 

2W. S. means weighted score, the score taken as most representative of each individual's 
ability. 



APPENDIX A 457 

scores so that they no longer represent the thing the 
tests are designed to measure. 

The scores of this group of children illustrate another 
important and exceedingly interesting point. The 
standard deviation (based on the class median) for the 
scores representing the median performances of each 
individual (11.8) is smaller than that for any single trial 
cf the test, except the third, which has the same value. 
In other words, the effect of the variation in individual 
scores is to increase the apparent range of variation 
within the class. On the basis of the results of a single 
test, individuals within classes appear to differ more in 
ability than they really do. 

For instance, a group of 22 fifth grade children was 
selected, each member of which had the same median 
score for the five trials (95). That is, they represented a 
group of children of equal ability in copying figures as 
far as that ability can be determined by five trials of the 
test (Table XI, page 458, Figure 7, page 460). The 
real variability of the group is zero, yet two individ- 
uals (Nos. I and 2) on the first trial had very low 
scores which totally misrepresent their true abilities; 
two other individuals (Nos. 15 and 19) had very high 
scores in the fifth trial, which similarly misrepre- 
sent their true abihties.^ Similar extreme scores 

^These last two are from the same class and it might be thought that 
in this class an error in timing had been made. However," an in- 
spection of the class medians and class distributions shows that they 
are precisely similar to those of other classes of the same grade, and 
that these two individual scores are simply erratic variations. 



458 



APPENDIX A 



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460 



APPENDIX A 



Figure 7 
Variation in Performances of Children of Equal Ability 

RANGE or VARIATION IN PERFORMANCE COPYING FIGURES 



140 

130 

110- 
"95- 
60- 

60- 

40- 



22 CASES SELECTtD A50F 
EQUAL ABILITY 



'■ ]• i I ' I ■ ' ^ 



TOTAL 5C0RES 110- lOO/. 

95 ■• 35- 311- 

SCORES WITHIN ±10 51 -- 4(,) 
VARIABLE SCORES 24= 2Z 



The scale along the left hand vertical axis represents the number of 
figures copied per minute. The squares represent individual children. 
The arrows show the range of variation from the lowest to the highest 
score; thus, the lowest score made by individual i was 25 figures per 
minute on the first trial, the highest score was no figures per minute on 
the fourth trial; the point of the arrow in each case showing the lowest or 
highest score, and the figure just beyond the arrow showing the number 
of the trial in which the score was made. 

Individuals Nos 2, 3, 15, and 19 show great variation. Individuals 
Nos. 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, and 22 show very small variation. The 22 indi- 
viduals had no scores in the five trials; 35 of these scores were 95 figures 
per minute, 51 other scores were within 10 points above or ,below 95. 
That is, 88 per cent, of the scores fell within 10 points of 95. Twenty 
four scores, or 22 per cent, of the total, show a variation exceeding 10 
points from 95. 



APPENDIX A 461 

occur in Test I, in Test II, and in each of the other tests. 
Only seven children (Nos. 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 and 22) 
show a total range of less than 20 figures, yet 88 per cent, 
of all the scores fall within ten figures of 95. In general, 
only very seldom would a test be given to a group of 20 
or more children without securing scores which would 
misrepresent grossly the abilities of at least 2 children. 

One phase of the question still remains to be discussed 
— the relation of variation in performance to the measure- 
ment of individual abiUty. All that has been said so 
far has tended to emphasize the unreKability of individual 
performance in a single test, and the reader might easily 
get the idea that tests were utterly worthless. The truth 
of the matter is that for eighty to ninety per cent, of the 
children a single test yields a fairly reliable measure. 
For half the children the results are perfectly satisfactory. 
For any group taken as a whole the chance variations 
offset each other, so that class scores may be depended 
upon. Generalized scores based upon city wide dis- 
tributions of a large number of cases reveal with absolute 
certainty the general level of achievement under the 
given conditions. 

Many persons seem disinclined to accept general 
results as valid when they know that some of the individ- 
ual results are unreliable. It is easy to show, however, 
that in general the individual results are reliable and 
that such variations as occur fall within certain general 
limits. That is, an individual tends to maintain his 
general level in the group, so that when the results of a 



462 



APPENDIX A 





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Rate Trial 1 
" 2 
" 3 
" 4 

" 5 
" W. S. 
Number Right Form 1 
" 2 
Average 


Rate 
Quality 

Average 


Accuracy 

Spelling Coefficient 
Slips 

Misspellings 
Total Errors 
Average 


H 

H 


Age 

Copying Figures 

Cancellation of Triangles 


Free-Choice 

Dictation 
Composition 


List Test 
Dictation 
Composition 


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APPENDIX A 



463 



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Rate 
Quality 

Vocabulary Coefficient 
T. M. Actual 
Actual Gram. 
Gram. Coefficient 
Actual Errors 
Coefficient Errors 
Average 


Series B, Addition 

" " Subtraction 

" " Multiplication 

Cleveland Multiplication 
Cleveland Multiplication 
Series B, Division 

Cleveland Fraction 


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APPENDIX A 



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.466 APPENDIX A 

number of different tests are available his general ability 
is evident. Of course allowance must be made for the 
variations in capacity which make for personaHty. One 
child excels in mathematics and is poor in Enghsh, one 
may even be strong in addition and weak in subtraction. 
But in general, the consistency of an individual's scores 
is made evident by any comparison of the results of an 
extended series of tests. 

When the variabihty ratios^ of any individual are 
available in many different tests the average ratio may 
be taken as a measure of the individual's general ability. 
On the assumption (probably unwarranted) that all the 
ind-viduals compared have had equal opportunities for 
training, this average ratio would represent a measure 
of relative capacity. Such average ratios were obtained 
for the 42 eighth grade children present in all tests. 

The ratio of the individual having the highest average 
ratio is consistently from o to 2 units above the median 
(Table XII, page 462, Figure 8, page 467). In but fif- 
teen per cent, of the cases does the ratio fall below the 
median and these are offset by an equal number of excep- 
tionally high scores. In most of the tests, the child's 
scores place him in the group in his correct position as 
exactly as "general ability" has a constant value. 

Similarly, the results for other children show equal 
consistency. The performances of the less able individ- 
uals tend to be more variable and, therefore, less reliable, 
but in from sixty to eighty per cent, of the cases a single 

'For an explanation of this measure of relative position, see p. 475. 






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467 



468 APPENDIX A 

FiGTjRK 8 — Conlimied 

The scales along the top of the figure show relative position within the 
group. M= median. The unit is the median deviation from the 
median. The figures along the scale at the left of the different figures 
represent the various tests in Table XII, page 462. The dotted 
lines represent the actual scores of 3 individuals in the group of 42 eighth 
grade children present for all tests. A represents the individual having 
the highest average score, B the most consistently median individual, 
and C the individual having the lowest average score. The solid lines 
are based upon the average values for the different subjects. 

The curves make evident the extreme range of variation in perform- 
ance in any one test, and the reliability of scores based upon many 
tests. For instance, individual A ranges from nearly the lowest position 
in the class to the highest in single tests, yet in each subject his average 
position is closely the same as for all. The same is true of B, and to a 
lesser extent, of C. The curves show the individual differences of 
children. Thus relatively, B is weak in writing, strong in spelling, weak 
in arithmetic and composition, and strong in reading. The graph also 
tends to show that the less able individuals exhibit greater fluctuations in 
performance than the more able. 



test affords a fairly accurate indication of the ability of 
the individual (within one unit of variability). The re- 
Hability of group results is due both to the fact that the 
individual results are in general reliable, and to the 
additional fact that such variations as occur are as 
likely to take place in the direction of higher scores as of 
lower. 

The variability of a group of children is greater in the 
more complex tests than in the simple ones. Children 
are more alike, for instance, in the rate at which they 
copy figures, which involves merely control of muscular 
action (coefficient of variability .10) than they are in a 



APPENDIX A 



469 






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470 APPENDIX A 

test for rate of reading, which involves mental elements 
(coefficient .20), or in a test of adding or spelling, which 
measures the results of a long course of training (addi- 
tion .25) (Table XIII, page 469). The more complex the 
mental activity involved, that is, the more the activity is 
a direct product of a long and complex series of trainings, 
the greater should be the variability, because those of 
greater capacity respond to training more readily. If the 
training were continued long enough, the more able might 
tend to reach a maximum and thereafter further training 
might operate to reduce variabiKty. But at all times, 
other conditions being equal, the greater the complexity 
of the ability tested, the greater the variability is likely 
to be. 

The fact gives added significance to the tests of simple 
mechanical skills. For Gary, and for other similar ex- 
periments, the claim is sometimes made that they are 
"attempting to meet new demands for a more practical 
education by the selection and organization of a cur- 
riculum strictly in terms of the activities and environ- 
ments of both children and adults."^ In such experi- 
ments, however, the aims which are set up as desirable 
are always less clearly defined and very much more com- 
plex than the simple work in conventional schools. It 
is extremely probable, therefore, that unless measure- 
ment proves that the new curriculum is so well organized 
and administered that it controls more effectively the 



^Control of Educational Progress through Educational Experimen- 
tation. School and Society, Vol. i. No. 126, Meriam. 



APPENDIX A 471 

forces acting in the relatively simple problems of equip- 
ping children with the essential tools by which all men- 
tal work is done, the efhciency of the work directed 
toward the attainment of the higher ends will be corre- 
spondingly lower. So far, no schools seem to have met 
successfully this test of controlling the simpler and more 
mechanical phases of education. Yet educational prob- 
lems are not to be considered solved because one's aim 
is worthy or one's theory plausible. In the opinion of 
the writer, to be considered wholly successful, classroom 
teaching must result in a reduction of the present vari- 
ability in the final product. 



XI. Statistical Terms and Methods 

An important detail of survey work is the choice 
of methods by which the results of educational tests are 
prepared for publication. Readers unfamiliar with sta- 
tistical procedure will find in appropriate textbooks full 
explanations of the general terms and methods used. 
Each investigator, however, is likely to modify general 
methods to suit his own needs. In this section are given 
explanations of these methods which are pecuHar to this 
report. 

MEDIAN DEVIATION 

The measure of variability most frequently used in 
this report is median deviation. This measure bears the 
same relation to the deviations from the median that the 
median bears to the scores. 

It is found by an approximate method. Any distribu- 
tion of scores is converted into a distribution of devia- 
tions as follows : 

Scores 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Scores Median Score 5.8 1 
Frequency 7 2 5 4 3 3 1 ChUdren 

Frequency 5 6 10 3 1 Children 

Deviations 12 3 4 Steps Median Deviation 1.7 



^Or 5-7, if the mid point of the median score is taken. 

472 



APPENDIX A 473 

The five children whose scores are 5 each are considered 
to have no deviation from the median, the two children 
whose scores are 4 and the four children whose scores 
are 6 are considered to form a single group of 6 whose 
scores are one step away from the median. Similarly, 
there are ten children (7+3) whose scores are two steps 
away, three children three steps away, and one whose 
score is four steps away from the median. The median 
deviation is the thirteenth in order of size and this is 
found in precisely the same fashion as the median, 
with one exception. The median is considered as falling 
at the midpoint of its step, consequently, the deviations 
in the table above represent the mid-points of the 
steps and not their beginning. To be consistent with 
the practice followed in other tables of the report, the 
deviations should be labeled o, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 respec- 
tively, but the method is much easier to explain in the 
form given. The corrected median deviation is found as 
follows: 5 + 6 = 11, 13 — 11 = 2, 2-^ 10 =.2, i.5+.2 = i.7. 

The semi-interquartile range is 1.68. 

The mid-point of the median deviation is 1.65. 

CITY WIDE SCORES 

City wide median scores were derived from distribu- 
tions of individual scores formed by consolidating the 
distributions for the different classes of a given grade, 
not by finding the median of the class medians. The A, 
B, and C sections of the classes in the different schools 
were first combined separately then merged into the 



474 APPENDIX A 

single distribution for the grade. The median score 
based on this distribution is treated as the scores of the 
city for the given grade.^ 

GENERALIZED SCORES 

The function of the measurements made in the survey 
was conceived to be the determination of the general 
level of abilities of the different grades at Gary. Conse- 
quently, although the median score of every class in 
every school was found and graphed, in the general 
tables only the "generalized city wide scores" are given. 
That is, small irregularities in the various development 
curves derived from city wide scores were smoothed out, 
sometimes by averaging the scores of a given grade with 
those of the grade above and below, sometimes graph- 
ically, and sometimes by arbitrary adjustments. The 
amount of such adjustment is everywhere small and 
some measure of its amount is always reported. The re- 
sulting generalized curves, therefore, represent the gen- 
eral trend of the development of ability at Gary minus 
the small irregularities that normally occur in every 
school system from year to year. 

As an illustration of this process of consolidation and 
generalization, the different stages for the scores in the 
dictation spelhng tests will be shown. 

In Table XIV are given the class and grade distribution 
for all the fifth grade classes tested at Froebel. In 
Table XV the class medians for all classes taking this 

^See last four columns of Table XIV on page 476. 



APPENDIX A 475 

test are given in full, and in Figure 9, page 479, the vari- 
ous school curves are shown in relation to the city wide 
grade scores and the generalized scores.^ It will be ob- 
served that the generalized curves make for simplicity of 
presentation and ease of understanding and that it accu- 
rately reflects the general trend of the development. 

CORRELATION 

One other type of statistical method employed in this 
report needs discussion and explanation, namely, corre- 
lation. By correlation is meant the degree of relation 
which exists between two abilities. For instance, one 
may well ask the question, "Is good spelling dependent 
upon (more precisely, does it occur associated with) 
good writing?" One would answer this question with 
an unqualified "yes" if the best writer in the class proved 
to be also the best speller, if the second best writer the 
second best speUer, and so on, the worst writer proving 
to be the worst speller. Such correspondence would be 
called perfect correlation and is practically never found. 
The causes operating to produce variation are too many 
and too varied to permit of perfect correspondence, and 
the real problem is to determine the precise degree of 
relationship existing between the two abilities. For the 
relationship may (theoretically) vary from perfect cor- 
respondence through no correspondence to an inverse 
relationship in which the best writer would be the worst 
speller, and so on (negative correlation). 
iSee also Fig. 14, page 84 , 



476 



APPENDIX A 



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APPENDIX A 



479 



ACCURACY 



FiGXJRE 9 

Relation Between Actual and Generalized Scores 

SPELLING 

DICTATION TESTS 




GENEITALI?ED 
FROEBEL X 

— IMERSONn 
-- JEFFERSONo 
■" BEVERIOGE* 

— AVERAGE 



The scale along the base of the figure indicates grades, that along the 
left hand vertical axis the average accuracy of spelling. Each X repre- 
sents a score made by a class in the Froebel school; each square a class 
in the Emerson school, each circle a class in the Jefferson school, and 
each triangle a class in the Beveridge school. The development curves 
for the various schools are shown, also the curve (double line) based upon 
the generalized score. 

The graph shows that spelling ability at Gary should be represented 
by a zone about 20 per cent. wide. That is, in any one grade the dif- 
ference between the best and worst of the school curves is approximately 
20 per cent. The curve based on the generalized scores runs through 
the centre of the zone. 

For other illustrations of relation between actual and generaUzed 
curves, see Figure 2, page 19; Figure 14, page 84; Figure 52, page 295. 

In this report correlation is used only to bring out cer- 
tain general relations between tests. No extended or 



48o APPENDIX A 

careful studies are attempted. Consequently, the method 
of correlation used and the precision of the results are 
of little moment; it is the general degree of correlation 
only that matters. Accordingly, a special method of 
correlation has been employed, a method which lends 
itself to simple definition and to graphic presentation. 
The details of this method will now be explained. 

For the purposes of this report, correlation may be 
defined as the extent to which the members of any group 
maintain the same relative position within the range of 
scores for one test that they hold in the scores for a 
second test, the extent, that is, to which the children 
that are high, average, or low in one test are high, average, 
or low in the other also. 

The degree of correlation is measured by a coefficient 
of correspondence. That is, 

(i) The position of each child in the group in both tests 
is expressed in common terms, and (2) from a comparison 
of these common measures of position, (3) the percentage 
of children who maintain the same relative positions in 
the two distributions is easily determined by counting 
and computation. This percentage will be taken as the 
coefficient of correspondence. 

Measurement of relative position is made in terms of 
units of variability.^ A score which is either higher or 
lower than the median by an amount equal to the median 



^See Thorndike Mental and Social Measurements, page 158, and 
Comparable Measures, Kelly, Journal of Educational Psychology, 
December, 1914. 



APPENDIX A 481 

deviation is considered at a unit distance from the median. 
That is, the steps in finding such measures of relative 
positions are (i) finding the de\dation of each score from 
the median, denoting differences derived from scores 
larger than the median by plus signs and from scores 
smaller than the median by minus signs, (2) finding the 
median of these deviations, and (3) dividing each devia- 
tion by the median deviation, carrying the results to 
tenths. The resulting ratios are the measures of relative 
position desired. 

The method of transmuting scores in different tests 
into comparable measures of relative position rests 
upon the assumption that the range of scores in one test 
necessary to include the half of the cases which vary 
least from the median is equivalent to the range of scores 
in the other test necessary to include the corresponding 
cases. As scores in different tests are not directly com^ 
parable, some such assumption must be made. For 
educational work the median deviation seems to the 
author to be the most suitablemeasureof variability to use. 

The final step in determining the coefficient of corre- 
spondence is the comparison of the variabihty ratios. 
If child A is 2.1 units above the median in one test and 
2.0 units above the median in the other, it is apparent 
at once that he has maintained the same position in the 
two tests within a tenth of a unit. On the other hand, 
if child B is H- 2.1 in one test and — 1.7 in the other test, 
it is equally clear that he has changed his position in 
the group 3.8 units. The number of children out of the 



482 APPENDIX A 

entire group who maintain the same positions within 
any desired degree of exactness is thus easily determined, 
and the per cent, that this number is of the total number 
in the group constitutes the coefficient of correspondence. 

The size of the coefficient will depend not only upon 
the real degree of correspondence between the two 
abilities tested but also upon the rehabihty of each test. 
For if the conditions of the testing are such that large 
chance variations may occur, exact correspondence 
could not be expected, even though the relationships 
between the two abihties were perfect. In the previous 
chapter, the chances that variation in score will occur 
were shown to be very great, and in general it is found 
that even for the most perfect tests, closer range of 
correspondence than one unit is not to be expected. 
In this report, the coefficients of correspondence are, in 
general, taken arbitrarily as the percentages of the 
groups which maintain their relative positions in the two 
distributions within one unit of variability. 

Empirical experimentation proves that in certain 
cases the coefficient of correspondence agrees quite closely 
with the Pearson product-moment coefficient of correla- 
tion,^ but that in other cases there is little resemblance. 
In this report, however, the Pearson coefficient (based on 
the median as the measure of central tendency) is given in 
all situat ions in which it might seem to be at all significant. 

^For a normal distribution it is probable that a coefficient based on the 
number of cases which maintain the same position within three quarters 
of a unit of variability would correspond more closely with the Pearson 
product-moment coefficient based on the same scores. 



APPENDIX B 

This appendix contains directions for giving the various 
tests, and illustrations of actual papers written by 
children, of answers and score cards, and of tabulation 
sheets. 

I. Handwriting 485 

II. Spelling 494 

III. Arithmetic 498 

IV. Composition 508 

V. Reading 514 



I. HANDWRITING 

FREE CHOICE TEST 

Instructions. — On the day before the test, give to each 
teacher a copy of the test paper. Tell her that her class 
will be tested in handwriting the next day, and ask her 
to have the class practice writing the test paragraph so 
that the children may become famihar with its contents. 

On entering a room, say: "We are going to have a 
handwriting test to-day. Please take out your pens and 
blotters and get ready to write. I will give each of 
you one of these papers (holding the paper before the 
class) but do not write anything until I ask you to." 

When all are supplied, say: ''Fill out the blanks at 
the top of the paper; your name, boy or girl, age, grade, 
and class. Now lay your pens down and read the in- 
structions out loud with me." 

Read the instructions with the class, making sure 
that all take part. Then say: " The instructions mean 
that when I say 'Start' you are to copy as much of the 
paragraph (pointing) as you can in the time allowed. 
You will be marked both for how much you write and 
how well you write. Do not begin until I say 'Start.' 
and stop as soon as I give the signal." 

48s 



486 APPENDIX B 

When all are ready, say: "Get Ready. Hands up. 
Start." Allow exactly two minutes. Then say "Stop." 
Have the papers exchanged. 

Pass the answer cards, have the first two lines filled 
out, then have the cards exchanged to correspond with 
the papers. Show the children how to count the number 
of letters written by means of the answer cards. Have 
the score written on the card in the space provided. 
Collect cards and papers. 

DICTATION test: HANDWRITING AlvTD SPELLING 

Instructions. — On entering a room, say: "We are to 
have a dictation spelling test to-day. Take out your 
pens and blotters, and get ready to write. I will give 
each of you a sheet of this paper. Please do not begin 
to write until I tell you to." 

Distribute the test papers. When all are supplied 
have the blanks at the top of the paper filled out. 

Then say: "I am going to dictate ten sentences. 
Lay your pens down while I read them to you, so 
you will understand them easily when I ask you to 
write." 

Read the sentences at the rate of about ten letters 
per second (slowly). Then say: "Now take your pens 
and get ready to write. I shall not repeat at all, so Usten 
carefully. If you have not finished a sentence when I 
start dictating the next, stop writing, omit the rest of 
the sentence, and hsten, but try to write fast enough to 



APPENDIX B 



487 



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488 APPENDIX B 



Answer and Record Card^ 



'^ The Gary Public Schools jmERSOJH 



N^mtJy^-fL.^^t^^ '^^y=y^^-^.^^^-^i!T-y</ Test 9 

5i&g- Age / :^- Grade ^ Class ^J 

Total number of letters copied in two minutes / c > a 

9 7 8 

Quality ^O ^^vT- 3>S^ . Rate__ifl__ 

Median 
Scored bv Quality 



^XJnder quality, the score under nine is the quality score for the Free 
Choice Test, under seven, for the handwriting in the Dictation Tests, under 
eight, for the handwriting in the Composition Test. 

(The small figures at the end of any word show the total number of 
letters up to the end of that word.) 



i2 
83 >ft 

127 



Fourscore g and 12 seven 17 years 22 ago 25 our 23 fathers 35 brought 
forth 47 upon 51 this 55 continent 64 a es new gs nation 74 conceived 33 in 
liberty 92 and ^r, dedicated 104 to loe the 109 proposition 120 that 124 ail 
men ,30 are 133 created uo equal. ,45 Now^g we .150 are^ss engaged leo 
>n 162 a 163 great 1C8 civil ^a warivR testing ,s3 whether 190 that 194 natiop 200 
or 202 any 205 nation 211 so 213 conceived 222 and 225 so 227 dedicated 235 can 239 
long 243 endure. 249 We 251 are 254 met 257 on 259 a 260 great 2® battlefield 2:6 
,of278^that282 war.285 



Tabulation Sheet 

Gary Public Schools 






School 
Scores— Speed 



L__^25: 



Class No. 
Quality. : 



» i8 



Grade ..... 



Efficiency... 





QUALITY AYRES SCALE 


SPEED, 


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30 


40 


so 


60 


70 1 80 1 90 


Freguenay 


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1 


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120-129 








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70-74 






















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489 



490 APPENDIX B 

keep up. Now give me your best writing and spell- 
ing." 

When the second hand of the watch reaches the sixty 
second mark, read all of the first sentence and tell the 
children to "write it." Wait until the second hand 
reaches the position shown by the figures in a parenthesis 
just before the second sentence, then read that sentence, 
and so on through the test, the children writing the sen- 
tences during the intervals between dictation. 

At the conclusion of the test pass the answer cards 
and have the blanks in the first two Hnes filled out. 
Collect cards and papers. 

In the fourth, sixth, and eighth grades give both the 
easy and the difficult words. 




491 



Answer and Record Card' 

FROEBEL 

The Gary Public Schoe!«k . . ' 

*^ Age--L2 Grades •6,7, 8 1^ .. Class 

/ 



i^S 



Total Number of Woi'ds Missed 
Accuracy 

Scored ^y 



f4> 



Score Card— Spelling — Test 6B 


Word 


No. jCheck 


Check 


No. 


Word 


victim 


1 






11 


majority 


ought 


2 






12 


organize 


occupy 


3 






13 


minute 


senate 


4 






14 


century 


agreement 


5 






15 


piece 


entitle 


6 






16 


assist 


govemment 


7 






17 


suggest 


responsible 


8 






18 


serious 


Wednesday 


9 




^ 


19 


expense 


pleasant 


10 






20 


business 


Total Words M 


i««(>r) 


Accur&cv 















492 



Tabulation Sheet 



EXERSOV 



CusRKord^ 
Sheet 

School E-jn 



Garx Public Schoola 

HANDWRITING 



^?9^/^ 



TEST7 



Mt£^ AV-/* AixA 3./^ 



DICTATION TESTS 



QUAUTY. AYRES FREQUENCY 



i2 yaiii .fe^- 



80 



70 



60 



SO 



40 



30 



20 



10 



J£L 



4«? 



M. 



^ 



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13- 



Qi 



TEACHER'S SAMPLES 



QUALITY, AYRES FREQUENCY 



Per C«Dt 69, or 
Bettat 



36fQ- 



5g? 



J^yUy^ 



^hiL^ 



t" 



90 



80 



70 



60 



SO 



40 



30 



20 



10 



2C 



^ 




493 



II. SPELLING 

LIST TEST 

Instructions. — On entering a room, give the teacher an 
answer card for the test and tell her that as soon as the 
children are ready, you are going to ask her to dictate 
the words. Give her no further instructions. If she 
asks any questions about the giving of the test, tell her to 
follow her usual practice. 

Then say to the children : "We are going to have a spell- 
ing test to-day. I am going to ask your teacher to dic- 
tate twenty words to you, and you will write them on 
these sUps of paper." 

Distribute the test papers and have the blanks filled 
out. Next ask the teacher to dictate the test words. 

When she has finished, have the papers exchanged 
twice; then distribute the answer cards for the test and 
have the blanks filled out. Have the cards exchanged to 
correspond with the papers, and in the lower grades 
collect the cards and papers together. In the upper 
grades the papers are to be corrected by the children; 
each word being marked (x) or (c), (for wrong or right), 
the marks to be made on the cards, and not on the papers. 

Collect the cards and papers together. 
494 



Test Paper 

The Gary Public Schools 
Test No. 6 A, Spelling 

S^ Age. J3 Grade P'/:^ Class ^6 . 



rh-^nj-cUji . 



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/".-g'">7^y-C>-vT^jg,/>-7^^e 



Jj J?^ , q y<J<2jf~^ 







495 



Answer and Record Card 

The Gary Public Schools. 
Nam*. jS) n~f^^ JL y^AJU^y, 

'"^^^ Age_il__ 



Girl 




Total Number of Words Missed 
Accuracy 

Scored by 



^ 



-4^ 



Score Card — Spelling — Test 6 A 



J Word 


No. Check 


Check 


No. 


Word 


divide 


1 


e 


^ 


11 


sincerely 


principal 


2 


A 


C 


12 


athletic 


testimony 


3 


(L 


X 


13 


extreme 


discussion 


4 


c 


X 


14 


immediate 


arrangement 


5 


c 


(Z 


15 


convenience 


reference 


6 


t 


6 


16 


receipt 


evidence 


7 


c 


C 


17 


preliminary ^ 


orpnization 


8 


e 


t 


18 


decision t 


emergency 


9 


\ 


t 


19 


judgment 


appreciate 


10 


c 


X 


20 


recommend 



Total Words Missed. 
Accuracy 



^Words 17 and 18 were marked correct when reference to page 495 shows 
that they were really misspelled. An illustration of imperfect scoring. 

496 



JUFFU'RSOy 



Class Record 
Record 



Gary Public Schoofs 

SPELLING 



#/^ 



TEST 6 



Xl.'J'T':-^.. ^gSof^:!^ ^ 



^^SU i 

NUMBER 


LIST TEST 


DICTATION TEST 


, OF PUPILS FAIUNG ON 


NUMBER OF PUPILS FAILING ON ■ 




Frequency] Miiipelliiif 


1 Freqaency 


Miafpellhic ) 


~ 20 words 






20 words f 




19 .' 


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19 " 






18 • 


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18 •• 






17 • 


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17 •• 






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> 


1 


// 


11 •• 


/ 


if 


10 ' 


1 


^ 


J^o 


10 " 


lo\ 


9 ' 


i. 






9 '• 






8 • 


( 


s 


^Hi 


8 " 


^ 


^¥ 


7 ' 


• 


/ 


7 


7 " 


/ 


7 


6 ' 


• 


S' 


.^a 


6 " 


7 


^ 


5 • 


• 


^ 


10 


5 " 




r 


4 • 


• 


^ 


r 


4 " 


^ 


3 * 


i 


3 


1 


3 " 


? 


2. ' 


1 


^ 

s- 


¥ 


2 '* 


^t. 


1 ' 


1 


r 


1 '• 


r 


_£ 


c • 


t 


^ 




" 


r 


Tot»I 


^$ 


/f ^ 


TouJ 


^j 


f^ f 


cim* ; 


Average 
Accuracy 


4,6 


CUi 


4kverage 
1 Accuracy 




^r cent Perfect 


^j^^^jiXt^' 


ly^ 



497 



III. ARITHMETIC 

SERIES B (cOURTIs) 

Instructions. — On entering a room, ask the teacher for 
permission to give a test, and make sure that the children 
are provided with pencils. 

Say: "We are going to have arithmetic tests this week. 
To-day we are to have addition and subtraction; to- 
morrow multiplication and division. Please do not turn 
these papers over (showing the two sides of the test) until 
we are ready." 

Then distribute the papers. Have the blanks filled in. 
Read the instructions out loud before giving the warning 
signal: "Get Ready. Hands up"; then when the bell 
rings, "Start." Observe the time intervals given in the 
instructions and have the timing checked by the teacher. 

Give the stopping signal by bell, but say also: "Stop. 
Hands up. Make a cross by the last example finished." 

Distribute the score cards. Have the blanks filled in, 
writing the number of the class after "Grade." Have 
the papers and cards exchanged twice. Read the 
answers from the card, letting the children check the 
examples right (c) or wrong (x) on the score card in the 
column marked "Check." Part of an answer does not 

498 



APPENDIX B 499 

count. Find the total number of the examples tried and 
the total right, writing these scores on the face of the card 
also. 

Collect the cards by rows. 

Have the papers exchanged again. Distribute new 
score" cards, and again have the papers scored. 

Collect both cards and papers by rows. 

Pass the papers for the subtraction test. Have the 
blanks filled in and read the instructions out loud. Give 
the test as before. 

Pass the score cards and have the blanks filled in, then 
collect both cards and papers. 

SERIES B (Cleveland) 

Instructions. — On entering a room say to the children; 
"We are to have an arithmetic test to-day. These 
papers contain five short tests. The first set of examples 
(point) is called set C; second, set H; the others, sets G, 
O, and L. Please do not look at any of these examples 
until we are ready. As soon as you get a copy of the 
tests, fill out blanks on cover. 

Distribute the papers. 

When I say: "Get ready," raise your pencil hand, 
take hold of cover with the other so you can open test 
quickly when I say: "Start." When I say: "Stop," 
close your papers and stand beside your- desk. The 
first test is a test in the multiplication tables. It is called 
set C and comes at the top of the page. Write the an- 
swers on the paper directly underneath the examples. 



500 



APPENDIX B 



Test Paper 

Illustration of form in which series B was used 



fht Garp fubtie Schools 

Arithmetic Test No. S A. Addition. 
Series B. Fonn 3 



, YoiT^rall be given eight minutes to find the answers to as many of these 
Ad^tioh examples as possible. Write the answers on this paper directly under- 
neath the examples. You are not expected to be able to do them all. You will be 
marked for boOx speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have your 
answers right than to try a great many examples. 





Name fta,^'»i..*>^^ *J^/^uk> /^<^g^ 

Ag ft/&^^ Grade_gjt3U.i/£' Hour /^ '- ^^ 



T 



APPENDIX B 501 



339 


799 


952 


937 


489 


789 


872 


309 


276 


584 


397 


274 


877 


555 


657 


964 


977 


135 


535 


468 


482 


342 


329 


673 


861 


647 


669 


836 


645 


908 


794 


437 


757 


624 


386 


323 


761 


471 


563 


338 


698 


512 


974 


485 


598 


896 


128 


591 


269 


146 


458 


357 


352 


123 


856 


636 


136 


1699 


702 


925 


431 


637 


962 


,704 


322 


109 


397 


819 


367 


254 


287 


119 


^ ^]f23y<r/^ sw7J/fp^^7S'sffrfT!^ 


125 


473 


1782 


485 


781 


602 


761 


656 


,767 


318 


403 


539 


945 


770 


978 


282 


632 


272 


555 


285 


574 


358 


820 


878 


306 


857 


688 


147 


497 


625 


747 


390 


290 


425 


349 


875 


92 6 


348 


504 


614 


1949 


693' 


814 


387 


832 


584 


939 


563 


883 


469 


397 


126 


668 


992 


485 


207 


i4ia 


954 


|966 


604 


303 


645 


268 


791 


'574 


346 


32.9^ 


418 


729 


377 


356 


138 


ffRmy 


■p<r- 










595 


399 


907 


735 


246 


356 


250 


845 


303 


275 


293 


354 


357 


409 


707 


372 


587 


583 


468 


512 


400 


970 


442 


689 


281 


777 


272 


695 


579 


648 


991 


83 5 


776 


841 


753 


849 


782 


593 


697 


426 


642 


656 


836 


402 


69.1 


861 


754 


745 


624 


924 


969 


987 


968 


938 


836 


813 


958 


365 


637 


298 


834 


223 


788 


197 


139 


463; 


293 


128 


125 


5 55 


177 


686 












*^"^ 


^^"" 





Back of test paper 



Answer and Record Card 



ys/^/r^^ 



^^SOAr 



Ni.t»^ ff/2AJ...^.^r*i^ *X.:^t&j .. /^«^Tffft No. 5, A 

Age /%- Grade ?^Cf - ^ /^ 



Girl 

Scores. 



Number Tried 
Number Right 
Accuracy 

The Gary Public Schools. 



/O 



7 



Id. 



Answers to Test 

Answer No. Check Check 



5, A 

No. Answer 



4635 


1 

2 






13 

14 


6255 


4255 


5301 


5470 


3 


A 




15 


5858 


5424 


4 


? 




16 


4519 


5002 


5 


A 




17 


4905 


4975 


6 


C 




18 


5283 


5448 


7 


C 




19 


5428 


4771 8 


r> 




20 


4960 


4944 


9 


L. 




21 


4982 


4807 


10 


o 




22 


5553 


5283 jll 






23 


5642 


3866 


12 






24 


5608 



Total Tried_ 



Total Right- 



502 



Tabulation. Sheet 

Clasa Gary Public Schools 

Sh^f ARITHMETIC 




TESTS 


ScDfCs — SpBtdx'''*^..- Accuracy 


L*hC^^± P«i 


a 


JOrli iV"." 






PER CENT OF ACCURACY | 


SPEED 


100 


80 


, 80 


70 


so 


so 


49-0 


Fraqueney 
Spaad 


24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 




il 


24.iJ 


ao-2t 


l;-i» 


iS-lii 


12-14 


0-11 




a 


21.23 


19-30 


17-ia 


14-16 


12-13 


u-u 




'J 


20-21 


1819 


16-17 


14-15 J 


U-13 


0-lU 




i\ 


19j:o 


17-18 


15-16 


13-14 


11-12 


110 




» 


18-19 


16-17 


11-15 


12-13 


10-11 


0-9 




19 


18 


16-17 


U-15 


1213 ' 


10-11 


0-9 




18 


17 


15-16 


13-14 


11-12 


u-ia 


0-8 




17 


W 


14-16 


12-13 


11 


910 


0.8 


->• 


l« 


l.'i 


13-lt 


12 


10-11 


B-U- 


"■' 




15 


U 


1313 


Jl 


)1U 


8 


0-7 

/ 


/ 


1« 


i:i 


U 


10-U 


J-9 


' 


0-9 




m 


12 


U 


10 


i-0 


■ 


!-« 


:i- 


12 


11 


'"t 


9 


i 

3 


67 
/ 


O-S 


^ J 


11 

1 


ID 

f 





s 

f 




6 


0-5 


t^^ 


10 


9' 


8 
/ 


'1 
f 


z 


6 


S-* 


^ X 


> 


— ■ 


B 


f 




5 


0-4 


^'^ 


i 


- 


' 


6 
t 




4 


"^ 


% 


r 


~. 


II 


i 




4 


11.3 


1 


» ■ 


~ 


f 






} 


0-2 




i 


~ '■ 


i. 


- 




- 


0-2 


/ 


1 


- 




3 


~ 


I 


0-1 
/ 


^ 


> 


-~ 


~ 




3 


- 


0-1 




! 


- 


- 


~ 


- 


I 


[) 




L 


~ 


~~ 


~ 


- 


- 


9 




" 


~ 


~ 


~* 


"..^ 


J 


3X, 


Totil 

% 


0^ 


_/ 


^ 


,T^ 


AL X 1 


^ 


3.^ 


S^ /^o/ /^^ ^t-^ /.cr >iV . 1 


, Median Scores— Speed •••/^stt..- Accuracy.-.,..-. .t:... Efficiency — v « 



503 



504 APPENDIX B 

Now lay your pencils down while we practice starting — 
"Get ready, start, stop, close papers, stand." 

When all understand, give the first test, warning the 
children to multiply just before giving the signal: "Get 
ready." Have children put a circle around the last prob- 
lem completed when they stop. 

While the children are standing, say: "The next set 
of examples, Set H, on the lower half of this page, con- 
tains easy examples in the addition and subtraction of 
fractions. Watch the signs and do what they tell you to 
do. If you cannot work these examples, close your 
papers and wait for the next test." 

Give the test. 

For the next test, say: "Set G is another multiplica- 
tion test. Write your answers directly underneath the 
examples. 

Give the test. 

The next test, Set O, on lower half of cover page, is 
made up of examples in addition, subtraction, multipli- 
cation, and division of fractions. Watch the signs and do 
what they tell you to do. 

Give the test. 

Set L, the last test, is on the back of the paper, and is a 
test in long multiplication. 

Give the test. 

Distribute cards, one set at a time, and have blanks 
filled out. Then place all cards inside folder. Collect in 
grades three and four. In other grades exchange twice 
and score in this order : L, G, and C as far as time permits. 



APPENDIX B 



50s 



Test Paper 



"Tha Gaty Pobtie Sc&ficib 

A/M»elieT<fte 
f atfivMual Scot* ShMI 



«»J«^;d/T'<%l 




tHtatSoM far CUAta 



I. Co aft jmA mmk dircctlr en tin paper. 
ItaaiiV md rapidjp. bill Jo B01 hurrr. Ooljthsaj 
tttf «» rilkt «iU be muud. 



SET C-MultlplteaQMi— 

T Tf Ti T Ti "V 7f v>*9 -rs' 

llt*«tll«4 

I 4 ^ir • 4 1 M t « • 



tCTH-Fn<&a>- 

•i+i Jl »_i.i i 



r4- 



l*i. 




■<>1 ••*• MSI ••" ,'S<} 



^r 







5o6 



APPENDIX B 



Name. 



Answer and Record Card 



lAH^i^£,^t^^,tU 



Test No. 11, C 



^?,';°' Age—Zif Grade ^^ Class //^ 

Scores. Number Tried ^ -^ — 

Number Right 

Accuracy 



The QAry Public Schools. 



Xo 







Answers for Test 11, 


C 






6 


28 


72 





30 


4 


18 


42 





45 


r^ 


C-, 


r^ 


v( 


e 


. O 


d. 


C_ 


A 


o 


9 


10 


32 





30 


2 


9 


54 





28 


c. 


O 


r 


a; 


<^ 


e 


cr 


<=_ 


c. 


d 


,6 


16 


49 





24 


7 


24 


81 





12 


c 


r. 


O 
















5 


16 


72 





20 


4 


12 


64 





27 






















7 


12 


48 





27 


4 


18 


63 


25 


24 























Totiil Tried_ 



Xl> 



Total Right. 



-^^ 



Class 
Record 
^Sheet . 

Bpofotian 


Tabulation Sheet 

Gary Public Schools 

ARITHMETIC 




- Scores -Speed IH^JI^A 

it-/. A,/S, 


Accuracy .^/xX Efficiency--^ 


■— 




' " 'f'ER CENT OF ACCURACY | 


-SPEED 

.24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

J5 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 




100 


so 


80 


70 


w. 


SO 


4S-0 


, Fraquonoy 
Spoed ■ 


u 


■ii.-ii 


20-21 


17.lit 


i.>l» 


12-14 


u-11 


/r^f'f , 


a 


21-22 


19-20 


17-18 


14-18 


12-1.1 


0-11 




•a 


20-21 


18-W 


16-17 


14-1-^ 


11-13 


0-10 y 


r ' 


!l 


lU-20 


17.W 


15-16 


13-14 


ll-W 


o-io- 




iO 


1M8 


16-17 / 


U-15 


12-13 


10-11 


0-9 


/ ' 


19 


"n^ 


16-17 


U-15 


12-13 t 


10-11 


0-9 


.3 ; 


18 


17 


"•'7 


13-14 


11-12 


U-10 


0-8 


/ 


".5, 


"/ 


U..U 


12-13 


11 


9-10 


0-& 


7 


'W 


ir, ' 


13-14 


12 


10-11 


8-9 ^ ■ 


0-7 


/ ^ 


'V 


»y 


12-13 


11 


9-10 


8 


0-7 


^&> 


* / 


13 


V 


lU-ll / 


B-9 


• 


fl.» 


•^^ 


la 


13 


11 


10 


li-9 


r 


0-0, 


/^ 


"/ 


"^ 


.0^ 


9 


3 


6-7 


0-5 


cT 


"^ 


. , 


B 


8 


7 


6 


0-^> 


«3 


10 


'y 


8 


7 


a 


'■' 


0-4 


^ 


9 




8 


' / 


' 


5 


0-4 


/ 


e 


- 


' 


S 


5 


4 


0-3 




» 


- 


» 


' 


— 


4 


03 




a 


- 


5 


- 


4 


3 


0-i 




5 


- 


* / 


- 


3 


- 


0-S 


/ 


4 


- 


- 


3 


- 


' 


O-l 




1 


- 


- 


- 


% 


~ 


0-1 




2 


- 


- 


~ 


- 


I 


11 




I 


— 


~ 


- 


- 


~ 


D 


' 


- 


~ 


~ 


— 


~ 


- 


J - 




Total 


K^ 


7/ 


^0 


n2 


/ 


^ 1 


^^o; 


% 


' 1 




S — Speed- -^.'- "- flceura 


By _ .Effic 


ieney.-«. 




efv 


d-AV 











507 



IV. COMPOSITION 

Instructions. — Give list of subjects to teacher to write 
on board. 

Say to the children: "I want to find out to-day what 
kind of a composition you can write. I am going to ask 
you to write a story about an interesting experience 
that you or your friend may have had sometime or other. 
These are to be your own stories; nothing that you have 
just read somewhere or seen at a moving picture theatre. 
A real story will probably be best, but if you cannot write 
a real story, you may make up'one of your own. Make it 
as interesting or as exciting as you can. Your teacher 
has written some suggestions on the board to help if 
you cannot think of anything yourself." Read them. 

An Interesting Experience. 

A Storm. 

An Accident. 

A Runaway. 

An Errand at Night. 

An Unexpected Meeting, 

On the Ice. 

In the Woods. 

On the Water. 

In the Mountains. 
So8 



APPENDIX B 509 

''However, you do not have to use any of these subjects 
unless you want to. Will those in the front seats please 
distribute the papers for me?" 

FiU in the blanks. 

"I am going to ask you to start together. You may 
spend the first few minutes thinking of what you are 
going to say, if you wish. I shall give you about twenty 
minutes in which to write your story. If you need more 
paper than the sheet which you have, raise your hand 
and I will bring you another. If you should finish your 
story before the time is up, please let me know by raising 
your hand." 

Start — allow twenty minutes — stop. 

Have children count words written. 



Answer and Record Card 
EMERSON 




1. Number of words written. /^ / Ratf^ 1 1 ^ Z /.-y^t^-e^n^ 

2. Vocabulary / / Coefficienf_.^!!2 

3. Spelling ^- ^ " ^"^1 



4. Caoitalization 



5. Punctuation CL 



6. Grammar ^ 



:z^ 



irammar ^ */ c . 

7. Time/<y /^ Sample . Hillegas J~^^ 



H 




510 



APPENDIX B 



511 







Vocabulary Analysis Sheet 
THE GARY SURVEY 






VOCABULARY 

Vamp Ul^^U^, Ci.t7->>T^^^ r.rnJi' d ^ ' 














Total Different 


Total Different 




S 


c^V* 


/J* 


For 






A 


c^3 


/ d 








C 


^ 


¥ 





10 


j?^ 


P 


/ 


1 


I 


/3 


3 


T 


^/ 


// 


N 


3 


3 


F 


7 


1 


G 


7 


7 


B 


V 


y 


U 





d 


W 


/o 


L, 


V 





d 


B 


• ^ 


3 


Y 


/ 


/ 


R 


7 


^^ 


J 


^ 


/ 


E 


^ 


J 


K 


d 


d 


M 


It 


jJ- 


Q 


d 


3 


H 


in 


^•^ 


Z 


D 


^ 


L 


3 


c2^ 


X 


^ 


^ 




TOTAL 1 


/ /-^ f 7 










% ^z-;^ . 





*Suinmary of records on page 512. 



512 



APPENDIX B 



Vocabulary Analysis Sheet 




Tabulation Sheet 



CUu 

Record 

She^ 

School 



Gary Public Schools 

COMPOSITION 



- - T^ MM— Class Ho^ 



^^r*: 



TEST e 



■iliit 



*(Sr 



^d 



9^^,¥o 



Scores— Spee 


^/sr" 


'(1 


uality. 7^, m, Efficieney,,. j 








QUALITY HILLEGAS SCALE 


SPEED 


10 


20 


30 


40 


60 


60 


70 


SO 


«0 


Frequency 
Speed 


30-39 






















26-29 






















24 






















23 






















22 






















21 






















9fi 






















19 






/ 














/■ 


18 






/ 














/ 


17 






















16 






/ 














/ ■ , 


15 








?r 












A- 


14 






/ 




/ 










JL 


13 






n? 














Q,& 


12 








/ 












f 


11 




















•TL- 


10 






/ 














/ 


8 






















« 




■ 


















T 






















6 






















6 






















4 






















3 




















( 


2 






















1 






















/?>. 






















J 3 T.,.. 






7. 


^^ 


/ 










/^<*' 



SI3 



V. READING 

gray's oral reading scale 

Instructions. — Find as quiet a place as possible to give 
the tests; arrange with the teacher to send one pupil to 
the door of this room every seven minutes. When you 
are ready to begin, hand the pupil a copy of the test and 
give the following directions : 

"I have here some paragraphs which I should Hke to 
have you read for me. Read at your natural rate, as 
you read for your teacher in class. Begin at the first 
paragraph when I say 'Begin.' Stop at the end of each 
paragraph until I say : ' Next. ' When you have finished a 
paragraph hold the paper at your side until I ask you to 
read the next. If you should find some hard words, 
read them as well as you can without help and continue 
reading." 

SUGGESTIONS 

A mispronunciation that is evidently due to a foreign 
accent is not to be counted as an error. However, in- 
dicate the foreign accent at the top of the page. 

In general, there are six types of errors; gross errors, 
minor errors, substitutions, insertions, omissions, and 
repetitions. When two errors occur in a single word or 

514 



APPENDIX B 5i< 

phrase, only one error — the last — should be counted. 
(For instance, a mispronunciation and a repetition.) 

A single word repeated once is not counted a repetition, 
but if it is repeated more than once it is a repetition. 

Watch for the substitution, insertion, or omission of 
letters* as well as of words and syllables. 

Keep time to the nearest seconds only. 

Place each pupil under each of the following cate- 
gories: Expression: No expression (N. E.), mechanical 
(M. E.), intelHgent (I. E.) . Type of reading : Word (W), 
sentence (S), paragraph (P). 

REPRODUCTION TEST 

Instruction. — ^The Reading and Reproduction Tests 
are to be given as follows: "Little Baby Bear" in grades 
two, three, four, and live; "Nothing on the Breakfast 
Table," in grades five, six, seven, and eight; "An Acci- 
dent" in grades eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve; 
"Two Ways of Asking a Favor" in grades four, five, six, 
seven, and eight. 

In second grade classes no attempt need be made to 
have the children reproduce the story, if in the judgment 
of the teacher they lack ability to write connected sen- 
tences. 

Time allowance for "Little Baby Bear" is one minute 
for second and third grades, thirty seconds for fourth and 
fifth grades; for "Nothing on the Breakfast Table" one 
minute; for "An Accident," one minute; and for "Two 
Ways of Asking a Favor," forty five seconds. 



Answer and Record Card 

EMERSON 
GRAY'S ORAL READING TEST 



Name 



Test No. 12, 

Boysy ^y /'^ Grade oA Class. /V^ 

/^^__Standard 4 iC- 



Ability, Standard 1 
Rate of Reading 



Points. 



±1. 



The Gary Public Schools 



GRAY'S READING SCALE 


No. 


Time 


Enort 


St'd' 


Value 


Product 


1 


/?- 


d 


4^ 




2.d 


2 


Id 


/ 


y 


5 


*3^6 


3 


/¥- 


/ 


V 


5 


%o 


4 


n 


/ 


V- 


5 


>o 


S 


11 





V 


5 


^o 


6 


Up 


i . 


v- 


5 


2^o 


7 


%o 


> 


.? 


5 


isr 


8 


%1^ 


d 


V- 


5 


i-4 


9 


If 


r 


y 


5 


6^ 


10 


5,? 


-f. 


/ 


5 


s^ 


11 


:xc 


7 


o 


10 




12 




5 




Grade Values for 4 


/^^ 




V 

I 
II 


aragraph 
1. 55 
I. 35 
I. SO 

r. 25 "^ 


I 

V. 20 

VI. 15 

VII. K 
^III. S 


Score 


H 



Si6 



Tabulation Sheet 

This sheet was designed for test in copying figures, but was used 
for tabulating scores in oral reading 



FROEBEL 



Te»t No. H 
Rate of Work 



The Gary Public Schools 



^Vo 



Class Sheet 



. Date._M-.>-.4 Hour... 



Trial >i«<jiJ„Xt«i 


/ Trial 


SCORE 


iB^f 


GWa-yl TOTAL 


SCORE 


Bojra 1 GirU 


TOTAL 


Fiq. 


Fiq. 


F.q. 


1 "^T 


Fiq, 


Fiq. 


OVER 


1 




1 OVER 


WtoJ( 




OaT 


16( 


' 


t 




160 


-JiS 


S" 


n 


15( 










150 


^r> 


^ 


?3 


14 


► 








140 


/3.<- 


nu 


.9¥ 


13 


» 








130 


li^D 


sS 


S.<" 


12 


) 


/ 






120 


/vr 


?^ 


?(^ 


ill 


> 


i" 






110 


js-o 


a^ 


q/ 


io< 


1 








100 


/^r 


fi- 


J1 


9< 


1 


^ 






90 


i^r 


f. 


u 


B( 






s"© 




80 


nc 


Ol. 


y^ 


7( 




1 






70 


9,3^" 


Oy 


x^ 


6( 






/© 




60 








5 


!> 




a- 




50 








4 


s 


/ 






40 








3 


) 




/ 




30 








2 


) 








20 








lb 




/ 




10 


























Total 


\h^'\ 


'/o<S) 




Total 


»Hi^ 






Median 


li'^ 7 


I 


Median 


?A.7 




^7 




f.d\ f 












I 




Miscellane 
Miic«ll<uie 








Tat 








Accimcj 










t 





i . C<J~-«^Vi<V 



^^7 



5i8 APPENDIX B 

On entering a room, say: "I have a reading test for 
you to-day. I am going to ask you to read a story for 
me, and will give each of you a copy of these papers, 
but you are not to look on the inside pages until I tell 
you to do so." 

Have the papers passed by the boys and girls in the 
front seats. When all are supplied, have the blanks at 
the top of the sheet filled out and the instructions read 
out loud. 

Say: "These instructions mean that when I say 
'Start' you are to read out loud with me the title and 
everything that is printed on this front page (pointing). 
When I say: 'Turn,' you are to turn the page and read 
the rest of the story to yourself. You should read only 
as rapidly as you can understand what you read, for 
when you finish I am going to ask you to turn to the last 
page (illustrating) and write in your own words as much 
of the story as you can remember. When I say: 'Stop' 
I am also going to say: 'Draw a line around the last 
word read.' That means that if you are reading a word 
in the middle of a sentence, for instance, you are to draw 
a line around it like this (illustrating on board or test 
paper), to show me just where you stopped. Now we 
are ready to try it." 

Say: "Start" and begin to read the title and story. 
At the bottom of the first page say: "Turn" and start 
the stop-watch. Exactly the proper number of seconds 
later say "Stop. Draw a line around the last word 
read; turn to the last page and begin to write as much as 



APPENDIX B 519 

you can remember of the story you have just read." 
Start the stop-watch again; exactly three minutes later 
say: "Stop. Put a cross on the paper after the last word 
written and go on writing." At the end of five minutes 
say: ''Stop." 

Collect the papers. 

Where a class takes two or three of the tests they are 
to be given in succession in the same class period. 

KANSAS SILENT READING TEST 

Instructions. — On entering a room, say to the teacher: 
"May I test this class this hour?" Upon receiving per- 
mission, make sure the class is the one called for on your 
schedule. 

Have the children clear their desks, and make sure 
each is suppHed with a sharp pencil. 

When all are ready, say: "I am going to give you a 
new test to-day. This has instructions on the front 
(holding paper up for inspection) , questions on the inside 
pages (opening the test), and on the back. Please do 
not open the papers or look at the questions until I 
give you the proper signal." 

Distribute the papers. 

Have the children fill in name, age, grade — only. 

Read the instructions out loud with the .children, hav- 
ing them actually draw a line around the word "cow" 
at the point where the instructions say to draw the line. 

For grades three to eight the time interval is to be five 
minutes. For grades nine to twelve the time interval is 



1 

11 

n 

it 

i 
I 

6 t 

B 

I 




©II 



C/2 



I I I -I 



^ C ^ J -g :_ 
§ -S J 5 ■? ° 



2 «-o^.'t:'£*5.a 6 




zn 


Wi 


aa-A-itssfBif; 


if 


" 


W 










H 


It 

II 
fi 


cunning; 1 wish yDu 
tripping about on his 
iny yellow orange in 
ed it tight against hij 
h his wee baby teeth. 
s tongue until 1 gave 
iss. The moment he 
bear, a pink tongue, 
leaf, came out and 
r in the bright glass 


li 


< 




He wa5 very 
could have seen him 
hind feet with a 
his arms. He hugg 
breast and bit it wi 
But I did not see h 
bim a looking gl 
raw the other baby 
like a curled rose 
kissed the little bea 


c 
■■B .S 

1 


cu 



520 



The form for the other reproduction test was the same as in Test No. i. 
The contents of the other tests were as follows: 

NOTHING ON tHE BREAKFAST TABLE 

Fred cfttne dot*n kte to breakfast one morning, so late tnat &II 
the other members of the fftmily were through, and had gone about 
their respective duties. But though he had slept late, Fred was 
still sleepy; for he had staid up until twelve o'clock the night be- 
fore, wliereas he was usually in bed by nine. To tell tlie truth, he was 
also rather cross, — as most boys are apt to be when they are 
sleepy.— and as he took his seat, he said: "Fshawl there's noth- 
bg on the breakfast table." 

*. Then he called lazily, "Kate, Kate." But no Kate replied,— 

for the excellent reason that she didn't hear him. She was out 
in the poultry yard feeding the chickens. So Fred leaned forward 
with a very discontented expression on his face, and closed his 
eyes; but he soon opened them again, and began to sneeze. A 
pungent odor had tickled his nose. 

"Ker-chewl ker-chew! ker-oJiew! What in the world did that?" 
said he. 

*T did," replied a sharp littte vol«, and there on the table 
before him stood a small creature dressed b green and wearing 
the brightest of red caps. 

'And who are you?" asked Fred. 

"Fm Pepper. Nothing on the breakfast table, hey? I call it 
decidedly ungrateful of you to say that, when there are a number 
of things here brought from all parts of the world t6 serve you. 
I, for instance, came way from the East Indies to help season your 
food. One would suppose <jHaJ you would be somewhat obliged 
to me, and would not count me as nothing." 

"That's true'," johied in a second small voice, and another small 
figure, wearing a pure white dress dotted with shining crystals, 
and^ wreath of what seemed to be bakr^'-snowflakes, sprang from 
the glass salt cellar. 
"And who Sre you?*' said Fred. 

"I am Salt," came the answer in clear tones. "I have come 
from deep mines and deep waters to wait upon you. ^Vhat you 
would do without me I do not know; for you require my aid mora* 
iug, noon and night Am I then to be classed as nothing?" 

"And am I nothing?" asked another tiuy form that stepped 
from the bread plate and bowed gracefully. "I am Wheat, and 
you have me to thank for Bread, *hich one ^f your wise ones haj 
said is the staff of life. 

"And how about me?** called the sweetest voice of all from the 
top of the syrup jug, where sal a brown-faced elf ia a suit like 
jointed armor, a fiower in one hand, &' greenish stick in the other. 
"I belong to sugar cane and I come from the West Indies to give 
you syrup for your griddle cakes and sugar for your coffee." 

"And we," spoke two more quaio^ wee creatures in the samo 
breath, as they peeped from behind the coffee pot, "hftve traveled 
from Java and Arabia to bringyou pleasure.*^ 

"I didn't mean—" Fred started to make reply, but suddenly 
his little visitors had disappeared and Kate wiiis brin^g in hit 
breakfast; crisp slices of buttered toast, a plate of delicious wheai^ 
cakes with golden synq), and a cup of steaming coffee. "Oh» 
•aid Fred, "ho«' much there is on the breakfast t#ble after aii^ 

521 



Silent Reading 
The Accident. 

I had not walked far into the country, before 1 found work in 
Brown's brickyard at 922 a month and board. It was my task to cart 
claj' in the afternoon to fill up the "pits" which had been emptied dur- 
ing the morning. It was an idle enough kind of job. All I had to do 
was fo walk alongside my horse, a big white beast with no 
joints at all except where its legs were hinged to the backbone, 
back it up to the pit, and dump the load. But, walking so in 
the autumn sun, I fell adreaming. I forgot claybank and pit; 
F was Iiack in the old town, — saw my sweetheart play among the 
timber. I met her again on the Long Bridge. I held her hands 
once more in that last meeting — the while I was mechanically 
backing my load up to the pit and making ready to dump it. 
Daydreams are out of place in a brickyard. I forgot to take out 
the tail-board. To my amazement. I beheld the old horse skating 
around, making frantic eflforts to keep its grip on the soil, then 
slowly rise before my bewildered gaze, clawing feebly at the air as 
it went up and over,(backwardg) into the pit, load,.cart and all. 

I wish for my own reputation that I could truly say I wept for 
the poor beast. I am sure I felt for it, but the reproachful look 
it gave me as it lay there on its back, its four feet pointing sky- 
ward, was too much. I sat upon the edge of the pit and shouted 
with laughter, feeling thoroughly ashamed of my levity. Mr. 
Brown himself checked it, running in with his two sous and de- 
raandmg to know what I was doing. They had seen the accident 
from the office, and at once set about getting the horse out. That 
was no easy matter. It was not hurt at all, but it had fallen so 
ns to bend one of the shafts of the truck like a bow. It had to be 
sawed in two to get the horse out. \ATien that was done, the 
heavy ash stick, rebounding suddenly, struck one of the boys who 
stood by a blow on the head that laid him out senseless beside the 
cart. 

It was no time for laughter then. We ran for w-ater and restor- 
fttives, and brought him to, white and weak. The horse by that 
time had been lifted to his feet and stood trembling in every limb, 
ready to drop. It was a sobered driver that climbed out of the 
pit at the tail end of the procession which bore young Brown home. 
I spent a miserable hour hanging around tlie door of the house 
waiting for news of him. In the end his father came out to com- 
fort me with the assurance that he would be all right. I was not 
even discharged, though I was deposed from the wagon to the com- 
mand of a truck of which I was myself the horse. I "ran out" brick 
from the pit after that in the morning. 

(\d»pl«d frei9 "Tilt MaliuiE ol 3D .Vonican." by Uatb Rlo) 



522 



Silent Reading 

TWO WAYS OF ASKING A FAVOR 

The lion-tamer stood leaning against one of his cages. As 
the two young officers came up to him, he. folded his arms 
and watched them idly. Duke Alexander looked him over 
carefully before he spoke; but Prince Michael began curtly: 

"Are you Romanoff, the lion-tamer?'' 

Romanoff nodded. "Yes," he said, quietly 

"lam Prince Michael of the Emperor's Guard. The Grand 
Duke t)rders you to come to-morrow to his place." 

Romanoff looked at him from under his long lashes. "What 
is the Grand Duke to me," he said, "or what am I to him? I 
am here to look after my lions." 

Prince Michael's face flushed scarlet and the hot blood 
mounted to his eyes. He took a step forward, but his cousin 
pulled at his arm. 

"You are quite in the wrong, Michael," he said. "That is 
no way to ask a favor. Go over tjhere while I speak with him." 

Michael walked over to the entrance of the tent and waited 
sullenly; but the young Duke looking atRomanoff, said: "Do 
not mind him. He is only a gi:eat ^chool-^oyj It is not the 
Grand Duke who wants you. It is my sister, the little Duchess 
Vera, She is very lame and walks on crutches. She suffers a 
great deal. She came to the circus to-day, and saw you; and 
now she. wants you to come and tell her all about thelions. 
Set your own price. Whatever your time is worth, 1 will pay 
you. I can refuse her nothing." 

A pleasant smile lighted up Romanoff's dark face, shpwinghis 

firm white teeth,and the kindly lines in the cornersof hismouth, 

'What my time is worth is my own .affair," he said. "You 

conld EOt pay m.e for going; but if the little lady is lame and ill, 

and wants me, I will go gladly." 

(Adsptol hon Sl Nid)^ 



524 APPENDIX B 



Answer and Recoed Card 

Silent Reading Test No. 1 ^^^^^^ 
Nnm^ /^^..^ yy<r^~7l(^ Test No. 13 

^^ Ag«> / rT Grade > A^ Class 74^ 

^ \ 4- •>- J> •^ 

Number of Words Read /^^ ^S^ U^ Rate /^^ / ^ -^^ 

Number of Words Wr;Hf>n /^/^ 77 Rate ^0- =?^ 

Quality of Reproduction____, . . 

-J^ '^^ . 



The Gary Public Schools. 



c School*. /tiT'TS. t 

30 & ^^ 



to be three minutes. Set the clock at 12 :oo. Start with 
bell and stop with bell. Have teacher time test with 
stop-watch. Record the time interval reported by 
teacher. For each test, give the warning signal: "Get 
ready. Hands up," and the stopping signal: "Stop. 
Put a cross in the right hand margin opposite the last 
question you have answered. Close your papers." 

Distribute score cards. Have name, sex, age, and 
grade filled in. 

For grades three, four, five, and six have the score 
cards placed within the test paper. Collect the papers. 

For grades seven to twelve distribute the score cards. 
Have name, sex, age, and grade filled in, then have the 
pupils exchange papers and cards (twice). 



Test No.t 
Form ' 



kTCRO^v „ 



Tabulation Sheet 
The Gary Public Schools^ 



jji^yj" 



Oass Sbeet 






.:??*r?:?t*fe^ 



€!««[»... 



..Date... 



..Hour... 



orm 1 



SCORE 



48, 49, 50 



45, 46, 47 



42, 43, 44 



39, 40, 41 



36, 37, : 



33, 34, 35f 



30, 31. 32 



27, 28, 29 



24, 25, 26 




21, 22, 23 



18, 19, 20 



15, 16, 17 



12, 13, 14 



9,10,11 



3> 4, 5 (fl 



0, 1, 2 



/^3 



/^>^ 



-hHh 



/3f 



J30> 



/3() 



6,. 7, 8 ^J- 



/4^7 












LrZ 



Mz±- 



11 



■^ 






;i^rt) 



.2^ 



ifi- 



48, 49, 50 



45, 46, 47 j^,/ 



42. 43, 44 j^^^ 



^9.40,41^^ ,^ g 



36, 37, 38 



33, 34, 35 li 



30, 31, 32 












.2^ 



^ 



^^ 






brm 2 



SCORE 



^-^ 



-I 



27, 28, 29^ 






24, 25, 26^J^ 



21, 22, 23 



18, 19, 20 



15, 16, 17 



12, 13, 14 



9, 10, 11 



6, 7, 8 



3, 4, 5 



0, 1, 2 



Frq. 



^L 



Frq. 



30 

1^ 






PC" 

^3 



SI 






^«^ 
-?^ 
^3-/ 
■^Z 



If- I 
19- f 






^ 



iq-t 






li>-l 



iS't 



IS-- 1 



TFT 



^ 



// 



^ 



'^ 



II 



f 



so. 



TOTAJ- 



M,S'^,0 



/\7l Possible errors: Scorins.. 

I Actual errors: Scoring 



Accuracy.. 



Mffpi^. 



Tabalating . 



TabDlating . 



Miscelluieoas.. 
Mtscdlaneons.. 



Frq. 



_^ 



^This sheet was designed for tabulating results of cancellation tests, but 
was used as shown. 



S2S 



526 APPENDIX B 

Then say: "Here is a large score card like the small 
one you have. Watch me score a paper. The correct 
answer to the first one is 'yellow' (pointing). It is 
yellow on this paper so I will mark this score C; the 
second answer, etc.; this answer is wrong so I will mark 
out the score with a cross. This is the last answer on 
the paper, so I will mark out all the rest of the scores. 
Now I will add all the scores not crossed out and write 
the sum here. Score your paper in this same way. If 
you don't understand, study the instructions on the card. 
When you have found your total score, record it after 
the word 'Score' here (pointing)." Collect the cards 
by rows. 

Have the papers exchanged again. Distribute new 
score cards. Have each child fill out a card from the 
paper he now has, following the same procedure as before. 
Collect the cards. 

TRABUE LANGUAGE SCALE 

Instructions. — "I have another reading test to-day. 
This sheet contains some incomplete sentences, which 
form a scale. This scale is to measure how carefully 
and rapidly you can think, and especially how good you 
are in your language work. You are to write one word 
on each blank, in each case selecting the word which 
makes the most sensible statement. You may have just 
seven minutes in which to sign your name at the top of 
the page and write the words that are missing. The 
paper will be passed to you face downward. Do not 



Answer and Record Card 
Mnnif> T^^*--'^;/^-'*"*^",,, ^^^f*f-^ Kansas Reading Test 

Age J^ Grade P^- ^ P- Score— 2^^^^ 



INSTRUCTIONS 



The opposite side of this card gives the correct answers. 
Compare each answer on the test paper with the corresponding 
answer-on the card. When an answer is wrong, draw a line through 
the value for that answer in the column headed Score. In the same 
way mark out the scores of aH exercises not tried. Find the total of 
all the scores not crossed out and record it at bottom of the column, 
and after the word score above. 

Answers to tests for Grades 5, 6, 7, 8 

The Gary Public Schools. ^ ^Z^c^ 



SCORE CARD 

KANSAS READING TCST 



■■SS 

•B S 



S-9 
S.1 

10.4 
12.8 

15.4 
18.4 



1 /4/i/i-ij^ CIO 

4 rabbit shepherd dog^2.0 

5 If v ou find a word (^2.2 



39 5 
.45.3 

J5.S 



Correct An»weril^v 



m Od 

curfew" tiloulghman 



success failure 



ftelted 
comno-jff 



ZO\jMi* 




S27 



Tabulation Sheets — Conventional Scores 

TROEBEL M^^.^'^^.M^ ^ /f^ *^6 

(XhlB record sheel BTo be returned to the Bnrean of Educational Measnrefflenttf 
and Standards, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kan. A daplicat« may 
be' retained by the teacher. If needed, additional copies of this record sheet 
will- be sent free.) 

/» Kansas Sflent-reading Test— Class Record Sheet 

Gity : „... £fcfe>ot :...,._ ._ -Srwfe f^.r^L'T 

Teacher. _ _ _ _. „.. Date.....¥..rJi.^..t.&i.. 


DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS' SCORES. 


:UJr^X^ 


Numher 
Pupils 


Instructions for Making the Distri- 
bution of Pupils' Scores, and fof - 
Finding the Median Score 

1. The teacher must be careful 

that her papers are grouped 
correctly by classes. If she • 
has but one grade of pupils, 
say 5th grade, or but two 
divisions of one grade, say 
5th A and 5th B, then her 
papers are all grouped to- 
gether and but one "distribu- 
tion" made. If, however, she 
has parts of two or more 
grades, say part 5th and part 
6th, she must make two or 
more piles of papers, one for 
«ach grade. 

2. Arrange the children's papers for 

any class group in order of 
scores,, the lowest score on top. 

' 3. To make thei distribution called 
tor, count the number of pa- 
pers whose scores fall ^within 
the successive groups listed; 
For instance, if the lowest 
score is 3.5, the next lowest 
5.7, the next 7.1, 7.8, 8.3, 
and so on, you will put "1" 
in group marked "between 3 
and 3.9," "1" in the group 
marked "between 5 and 6.9, 
"3" in the group marked "be- 
tween 7 and 8.9," and so on 
until the whole number sf 
scores are recorded. The sum 
of these numbers must equal 
the number of children taking 
the test. 

4. The median score is the score on 

the middle paper in the pile of 

papers arranged according to 

size of scores. If there are 35 

papers, the median score is the 

^j_ score on the ISth paper. If 

1%? there are 36 papers, the me- 

^ dian score is half way between 

, th'g score on the ISth paper anrt 

t&e score on the 19th paper 


between and 9 

between land 1.9 

between 2 and 2.9 

between Sand 3.9 


...L..... 

:::e: 


between Sand 6.9 


t^ 

zkz. 


between 9 and 10.9 

between 11 and 12.9 

between 13 and 14.9. . - ^ 

between 15. and 17 .9 „ . . . . 

between 18 and 20.9 


between 24 and 26.9 

between 27 and 29.9 

between 30 and 34.9 

between 35 and 39 9 






between 45 and 49.9 




between 60 and 69.9 

between 70 and 79 .§ 

SO and above. ^, 

Total number of children .... 
Median score 


It 


HUM (OVEit) ^oJi^i^c^AteU^ ^0~^ 



528 



Rate and Accuracy Scores 



Class Gary Public Schools TEST 3. i 

te* KANSAS READING TEST — 

Sc!iool-_^?i«*:M?- «--:s Cass Ho.™.'S^4-^ 

Seores-Speed..™.jK./iA-^iftlccuracy — clM. % Sfandard.- 



Grade- 



ItCLy 











PER ^ 


3,ENT OF 


• ACCUR 


ACY 








SPEED 





1-19 


20-39 


40-59 


CO-69 


70-79 J 


BO-89 


90-99 


100 


T8t«r , 


4-1 


n 




8.S 


16.4 / 


24.6 


28.7 


32.8 


36.9 


41.0 


|-^ 


40 







. -8.0 


1«.0 


24.0 


28.0 


32.0 


36.0 


40.0 




39 







7.8 


15.6 


33.4 


27.3 


31.2 


a5.i 


39.0 




38 







7.6 


15.2 


22.8 


28.6 


30.4 


34,2 


38.0 




37 







7.4 


14.8 


22.2 


25.9 


29.6 


33,3. 


87.0 




36 


a 




7.2 


14.4 


21.6 


35.2 


28.8 


32.4 


86.0 




35 







7.0 


14.0 


21.0 


24.5 


28.0 


a.5 


35.0 




34 







6.8 


13.6 


20.4 


23.8 


27.2 


30.6 


34.0 




33 







6.6 


13.2 


19.8 


2:i.l 


26.4 


29.7 


33.0 




32 







6.4 


12.8 


19,2 1 


22.4 


25.6 


28.8 


'32.0 


f ' 


31 







6.2 


12.4 


18.6 


21.7 


24.8 


27.9 


31.0 




30 







6.0 


12.0 


18.0 


31.0 


24.0 


27.0 


30.0 




29 







a.8 


11.6 


17.4 


20.3 


23.2 


23.1 


29.0 




28 







5.B 


11.2 


10.8 


19.6 


22.4 


25.2 


28.0 




27 







5.4 


10.8 


10.2 


18.9 


21.6 f 


24.3 


27.0 


( ' 


26 







5.2 


10.4 


15.6 


18.3 


20.8 


23.4 


26.0 




25 







S.O . 


10.0 


W.O 


17.5 


20.0 


22.5 


25.0 




24 







4.8 


9.6 


14.4 


16.8 


19.2 


21.6 


24.0 




23 







4.6 


9.-.> 


13.8 1 


IS.l 3 


18.4 9- 


30.7 3» 


23.0 'f 


f 


22 





.8 


4.4 


8.8 


13.2 


15.4" 


17.0 


19.8 


22.0 




21 







4.2 


8.4 


12.6 


14.7 


16.8 


18.9 


21.0 




20 







4.0 


8.0 


12.0 


14.0 


16,0 ^ 


18.0 / 


20.0 


•»- 


19 







3.8 


7.6 


11.4 


13,3 


15.2 


17.1 


19.0 




18 







3.6 


7.2 


10.8 


12.6 / 


14.4 


16.2 ^ 


18 0yL 


r - 


17 







3.4 


6.8 


10.8 


11.9 


-13.8 


15.3 


17.0 




16 







3.2 


6.4 


9.6 


11.2 


IB'.S f 


14.4 


18.0 


f 


15 







3.0 


6.0 


9.0 


10.5 


12.0 


13.5 


15.0 




14 





> 1 


2.8 


S.6 


8.4 


9.8 


11.3 / 


13.6 


H.0/'3 


13 







3.6 


5.3 


7.8 


9.1 


10.4 


11.7 


13.0 




12 


"1 




2.4 


4.8 


7.2 


8.4 


9.6 


10.8 


12.0 


t 


11 


u 




2.2 


4.4 


8.6 


7.7 


8.8 


9.9 


11.0 




10 







2.0 


4.0 


6.0 


7.0 


8.0 


9.6 


lO.n 




9 







1.8 


3.6 


6.4 


0.3 


7.2 


8.1 


a.o 




8 







t.6 


3.2 


4.8 


5.6 


e.i 


7.2 


8.0 




7 


» 




1.4 


2.8 


4.2 


4.9 


6.8 


6.3 


7.D 




6 







1.2 


2.4 


8.e- 


4.2 


1.8 


5.-4- 


6.0 




5 







1.0 


2.0 


3.0 


3.5 


4.0 


•4.6 


S.O 




4 
3 
2 

1 








.8 


1.6 


2.4 


2.8 


3.3 


3.6 


4.0 




n 




.6 


1.2 


1.8 


. 2.1 


2.4 


^2.7 


3.0 









.4 


.8 


1.2 


• ■* 


1.6 


1.8 


2.0 









.2 


.4 


.« 


.7 


.8 


.-9. 


1.0 









.0 


.0 


.0 


.0 


.0 


J) 


.0 




TdS'i 


_i_ 


f 




1 


t 


4^ 


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5" 


4 


i^: 









529 



530 APPENDIX B 

turn it over until we are all ready. After the signal is 
given to start, remember that you are to write just one 
word on each blank and that your score depends on the 
number of perfect sentences you have at the end of seven 
minutes." 

The papers are then distributed 

"After you have been working seven minutes, I shall 
say: 'Stop.' You will all please stop at once. Now if 
you are all ready, when the bell rings you may turn your 
papers over, sign your names and fill the blanks." 

Five seconds before the signal from the automatic 
timer, the warning: "Get ready" was given, and when 
the bell rang, the command "Start" was also given. 
Seven minutes later, when the bell rang the second time, 
the command "Stop" was given, and then the instruc- 
tions: "Mark a cross just before the nmnber of the 
sentence at which you stopped. Now write 'boy' or 
'girl' after your name at the top of the sheet. Then 
just below your name, write your age, your grade, and 
the hour. Turn your papers face down. The children 
at the back of the room please collect the papers for me." 



APPENDIX B 



531 



Trabue Language Scales 



4(= (L 

Name y^>Llf!L:n>d,J^<:fiL^ 



Answer and Record Card 



Boy or 



Grade, 



Trials — Test 4— Trabue 

/±- , f // . . //„ 



il 



Deviations from Weighted Score 



Tlie Gary Public Schools 



Weighted Score 



trre^olanties 



FkOEBEL 



Test No.Hv 
Rate of Work 






(P. 



Tabulation Sheet 

n. ^^^ ' 

' The Gary Public Schools 



^^ 



V^ 



Class Sheet 



Trial 



SCORE 



OVER 



160 



150 



140 
130 



^O -"Sto" 



120 



'i 



110 



Boy » 

Fiq. 



tt I GirU 
h I Fig- 



-J- 



S'© 



-^ 






^ 



c2.^ 



is 



2q> 



^Q 



H 



WTP 



j±j. 



I^OMtble erron: Scorinf.. 
Actual errort: Scoring.. 
Accuracy 



l_/a_ 



Fiq. 



^ 



X 






^ 



3 



^ 






al 



S05RE 



i io 



16p 



15 



146 



13( 



121 



11 



10 



60 



4 ) 



^i^ 



12^ 



Fiq. 



^. 



3(^ 



3^ 



"^ 



TWI 



Mfidian 



/.^ 



Z^ 



/Ak 



] Tabulating.... 

J T<J)ulating- 



Fiq. 



•cellMieaut. 
Mi««cIUui«9a«„ 



C£..{yU^^^ZiA>i^ 



R* 



iThis sheet was designed for the test in copying figures, but was adapted 
to the needs of this test as above. 



532 



THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 

REPORTS: 

THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD: AN ACCOUNT OF ITS ACTIV- 
ITIES, I902-I9I4. CLOTH, 240 PAGES, WITH 33 FULL-PAGE 
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ANNUAL REPORT OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, I917-1918. 

STUDIES: 

PUBLIC EDUCATION IN MARYLAND, BY ABRAHAM FLEXNER AND 
FRANK P. BACHMAN. 2ND EDITION. 176 PAGES, AND APPEN- 
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THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, BY THOMAS H. BRIGGS.* 
COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FINANCE, BY TREVOR ARNETT.* 

OCCASIONAL PAPERS: 

1. THE COUNTRY SCHOOL OF TO-MORROW, BY FREDERICK T. 

GATES. PAPER, I5 PAGES. 

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BY CHARLES W. ELIOT. PAPER, 29 PAGES. 

3. A MODERN SCHOOL, BY ABRAHAM FLEXNER. PAPER, 23 

PAGES. 

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PAPER, 29 PAGES, WITH APPENDIX. 

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PAPER, 21 PAGES, WITH APPENDIX. 

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The publications of the Boa*i may he obtained on request 



I C r "-in 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



021 338 802 2 



■vX 



mm 



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i 



i^u. 












5^H 1 



